Puyuma | |
---|---|
Pinuyumayan | |
Native to | Taiwan |
Ethnicity | Puyuma people |
Native speakers | 8,500 (2002) |
Austronesian
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | pyu |
Glottolog | puyu1239 |
ELP | Puyuma |
Linguasphere | 30-JAA-a |
(red) Puyuma | |
Puyuma is: classified as Vulnerable by, the: UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |
The Puyuma language/Pinuyumayan (Chinese: ććèȘ; pinyin: BÄinĂĄnyÇ), is the language of the Puyuma, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family. Most speakers are older adults.
Puyuma is one of the "more divergent of the Austronesian languages." And falls outside reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian.
Dialectsâ»
The internal classification of Puyuma dialects below is from Ting (1978). Nanwang Puyuma is consideredââto be, the relatively phonologically conservative but grammatically innovative, as in it preserves proto-Puyuma voiced plosives but syncretizes the use of both oblique and "genitive case."
- Proto-Puyuma
- Nanwang
- (Main branch)
- PinaskiâUlivelivek
- Pinaski
- Ulivelivek
- Rikavung
- KasavakanâKatipul
- Kasavakan
- Katipul
- PinaskiâUlivelivek
Puyuma-speaking villages are:
- Puyuma cluster ('born of the bamboo')
- Katipul cluster ('born of a stone')
- Alipai (Chinese: Pinlang èłæ)
- Pinaski (Chinese: Hsia Pinlang äžèłæ); 2 km north of Puyuma/Nanwang, and maintains close relations with it
- Pankiu (Chinese: Pankiu çéł©)
- Kasavakan (Chinese: Chienhe ć»șć)
- Katratripul (Chinese: Chihpen ç„æŹ)
- Likavung (Chinese: Lichia ć©ć)
- Tamalakaw (Chinese: Taian æł°ćź)
- Ulivelivek (Chinese: Chulu ćéčż)
Phonologyâ»
Puyuma has 18 consonants and 4 vowels:
Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | Ć ⟨ng⟩ | ||||
Plosive | Voiceless | p | t | Ê ⟨tr⟩ | k | Ê ⟨â⟩ | |
Voiced | b | d | É ⟨dr⟩ | ÉĄ | |||
Fricative | s | ||||||
Trill | r | ||||||
Approximant | l ⟨lr⟩ | É ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | w |
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Mid | É ⟨e⟩ | ||
Open | a |
Note that Teng uses ⟨lr⟩ for /É/ and ⟨l⟩ for /l/, unlike in official version. The official orthography is used in this article.
Grammarâ»
Morphologyâ»
Puyuma verbs have four types of focus:
- Actor focus: Ă (no mark), -em-, -en- (after labials), me-, meÊ-, ma-
- Object focus: -aw
- Referent focus: -ay
- Instrumental focus: -anay
There are three verbal aspects:
- Perfect
- Imperfect
- Future
There are two modes:
- Imperative
- Hortative future
Affixes include:
- Perfect: Ă (no mark)
- Imperfect: Reduplication; -a-
- Future: Reduplication, sometimes only -a-
- Hortative future: -a-
- Imperative mode: Ă (no mark)
Active | Patient | Locative | Causative | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Realis | Unmarked | tremakaw | trakawaw | trakaway | trakawanay |
Progressive | trematrakaw | tratrakawaw | tratrakaway | tratrakawanay | |
Durative | trematratrakaw | tratratrakawaw | tratratrakaway | tratratrakawanay | |
Irrealis | tratrakaw | tratrakawi | tratrakawan | ||
Imperative | trakaw | trakawi | trakawu | trakawan | |
Hortative | tremakawa | â |
Syntaxâ»
Puyuma has a verb-initial word order.
Articles include:
- i â singular personal
- a â singular non-personal
- na â plural (personal and non-personal)
Pronounsâ»
The Puyuma personal pronouns are:
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Oblique: Direct |
Oblique: Indirect |
Oblique: Non-Subject |
Neutral |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1s. | nanku | kanku, kananku | draku, drananku | kanku | kuiku |
2s. | nanu | kanu, kananu | dranu, drananu | kanu | yuyu |
3s. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | taytaw |
1p. (incl.) | nanta | kanta, kananta | drata, drananta | kanta | taita |
1p. (excl.) | naniam | kaniam, kananiam | draniam, drananiam | kaniam | mimi |
2p. | nanemu | kanemu, kananemu | dranemu, drananemu | kanemu | muimu |
3p. | nantu | kantu, kanantu | dratu, dranantu | kantaw | â |
Type of Pronoun |
Nominative (Subject) |
Nominative (Possessor of subject) |
Genitive |
---|---|---|---|
1s. | =ku | ku= | ku= |
2s. | =yu | nu= | nu= |
3s. | â | tu= | tu= |
1p. (incl.) | =ta | ta= | ta= |
1p. (excl.) | =mi | niam= | mi= |
2p. | =mu | mu= | mu= |
3p. | â | tu= | tu= |
Affixesâ»
The Puyuma affixes are:
- Prefixes
- ika-: the shape of; forming; shaping
- ka-: stative marker
- kara-: collective,ââto do something together
- kare-: the number of times
- ki-: to get something
- kir-: to go against (voluntarily)
- kitu-: to become
- kur-: be exposed to; be together (passively)
- m-, ma-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix
- maka-: along; to face against
- mara-: comparative/superlative marker
- mar(e)-: reciprocal; plurality of relations
- mi-: to have; to use
- mu-: anticausative marker
- mutu-: to become, to transform into
- pa-/p-: causative marker
- pu-: put
- puka-: ordinal numeral marker
- piya-: to face a certain direction
- si-: to pretend to
- tara-: to use (an instrument), to speak (a language)
- tinu-: to simulate
- tua-: to make, to form
- u-: to go
- ya-: to belong to; nominalizer
- Suffixes
- -a: perfective marker; numeral classifier
- -an: nominalizer; collective/plural marker
- -anay: conveyance voice affix/transitive affix
- -aw: patient voice affix/transitive affix
- -ay: locative voice affix/transitive affix
- -i, -u: imperative transitive marker
- Infixes
- -in-: perfective marker
- -em-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix
- Circumfixes
- -in-anan: the members of
- ka- -an: a period of time
- muri- -an: the way one is doing something; the way something was done
- sa- -an: people doing things together
- sa- -enan: people belonging to the same community
- si- -an: nominalizer
- Ca- -an, CVCV- -an: collectivity, plurality
Notesâ»
- ^ Puyuma at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Teng (2009), pp. 839, "841."
- ^ Zeitoun & Cauquelin (2006), p. 655. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZeitounCauquelin2006 (help)
- ^ Teng (2008), pp. 11, "18."
- ^ Cauquelin (2004), pp. 25â26.
- ^ Teng (2008), p. 112.
- ^ Cauquelin (1991), p. 27.
- ^ Teng (2008), pp. 61â64.
- ^ Possessor of subject
- ^ Teng (2008), pp. 282â285.
Referencesâ»
- Cauquelin, Josiane (1991). Dictionnaire puyuma-français. Paris: Ecole Française d'Extreme-Orient. ISBN 9782855395517.
- Cauquelin, Josiane (2004). Aborigines of Taiwan: The Puyuma â From Headhunting to the Modern World. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 9780203498590.
- Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2007). A Reference Grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan (Ph.D. thesis). doi:10.25911/5D63C47EE2628. hdl:1885/147042.
- Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2008). A Reference Grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan (PDF). Pacific Linguistics 595. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. hdl:1885/28526. ISBN 9780858835870.
- Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2009). "Case Syncretism in Puyuma" (PDF). Languages and Linguistics. 10 (4): 819â844. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-11.
- Ting, Pang-hsin (1978). "Reconstruction of Proto-Puyuma Phonology". Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology. 49. Academia Sinica: 321â391. OCLC 4938029239. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- Teng, Fang-ching é§èłé (2018). BÄinĂĄnyÇ yÇfÇ gĂ ilĂčn ććèȘèȘæłæŠè« [Introduction to Puyuma Grammar] (in Chinese). Xinbei shi: Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui. ISBN 978-986-05-5694-0 – via alilin.apc.gov.tw.
External linksâ»
- YuĂĄnzhĂčmĂnzĂș yÇyĂĄn xiĂ nshĂ ng cĂdiÇn ćäœæ°æèȘèšç·äžè©ć ž (in Chinese) â Puyuma search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
- Puyuma teaching and leaning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan (in Chinese)
- Puyuma translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people â published on the website of the presidential office
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