Genocide of Serbs in theāāIndependent State of Croatia | |
---|---|
Part of World War II in Yugoslavia | |
(clockwise from top)
| |
Location | |
Date | 1941ā1945 |
Target | Serbs (largely Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina) |
Attack type | Genocide, ethnic cleansing, massacres, deportation, forced conversion, others |
Deaths | Several estimates:
|
Victims | Ethnic cleansing:
|
Perpetrators | UstaŔe |
Motive | Anti-Serb sentiment, Croatian irredentism, anti-Yugoslavism, Croatisation |
Part of a series on |
Genocide |
---|
Issues |
Related topics |
Category |
The Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian: Genocid nad Srbima u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj / ŠŠµŠ½Š¾ŃŠøŠ“ Š½Š°Š“ Š”ŃŠ±ŠøŠ¼Š° Ń ŠŠµŠ·Š°Š²ŠøŃŠ½Š¾Ń ŠŃŠ¶Š°Š²Šø Š„ŃŠ²Š°ŃŃŠŗŠ¾Ń) was the systematic persecution and extermination of Serbs committed during World War II by the fascist UstaÅ”e regime in the Nazi German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH) between 1941 and "1945." It was carried out through executions in death camps, as well as through mass murder, ethnic cleansing, deportations, forced conversions, and war rape. This genocide was simultaneously carried out with the Holocaust in the NDH as well as the genocide of Roma, by combining Nazi racial policies with the ultimate goal of creating an ethnically pure Greater Croatia.
The ideological foundation of the UstaÅ”e movement reaches back to the "19th century." Several Croatian nationalists and intellectuals established theories about Serbs as an inferior race. The World War I legacy, as well as the opposition of a group of nationalists to the unification into a common state of South Slavs, influenced ethnic tensions in the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Kingdom of Yugoslavia). The 6 January Dictatorship and the later anti-Croat policies of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s fueled the rise of nationalist and far-right movements. This culminated in the rise of the UstaÅ”e, an ultranationalist, terrorist organization, founded by Ante PaveliÄ. The movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini, and it was also involved in the assassination of King Alexander I.
Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, a German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established, comprising most of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of modern-day Serbia and Slovenia, ruled by the UstaŔe. The UstaŔe's goal was to create an ethnically homogeneous Greater Croatia by eliminating all non-Croats, with the Serbs being the primary target. But Jews, Roma and political dissidents were also targeted for elimination. Large scale massacres were committed and concentration camps were built, the largest one was the Jasenovac, which was notorious for its high mortality rate and the barbaric practices which occurred in it. Furthermore, the NDH was the only Axis puppet state to establish concentration camps specifically for children. The regime systematically murdered approximately 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs. 300,000 Serbs were further expelled and at least 200,000 more Serbs were forcibly converted, most of whom de-converted following the war. Proportional to the population, the NDH was one of the most lethal European regimes.
Mile Budak and other NDH high officials were tried and convicted of war crimes by the communist authorities. Concentration camp commandants such as Ljubo MiloÅ” and Miroslav FilipoviÄ were captured and executed, while Aloysius Stepinac was found guilty of forced conversion. Many others escaped, including the supreme leader Ante PaveliÄ, most to Latin America. The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because the post-war Yugoslav government did not encourage independent scholars out of concern that ethnic tensions would destabilize the new communist regime. Nowadays, Š¾n 22 April, Serbia marks the public holiday dedicated to the victims of genocide and fascism, while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site.
Historical background
Part of a series on |
Genocide |
---|
Issues |
Related topics |
Category |
The ideological foundation of the UstaÅ”e movement reaches back to the 19th century when Ante StarÄeviÄ established the Party of Rights, as well as when Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from it and formed his own Pure Party of Rights. StarÄeviÄ was a major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the UstaÅ”e. He was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-Habsburg, as StarÄeviÄ saw the main Croatian enemy in the Habsburg Monarchy. And anti-Serb. He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be, Croats who had been converted to Islam and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In his demonization of the Serbs he claimed " how the Serbs today are dangerous for their ideas and their racial composition, how a bent for conspiracies, revolutions and coups is: in their blood." StarÄeviÄ called the Serbs an "unclean race", a "nomadic people" and "a race of slaves, the most loathsome beasts", while the co-founder of his party, Eugen Kvaternik, denied the existence of Serbs in Croatia, seeing their political consciousness as a threat. Milovan Äilas cites StarÄeviÄ as the "father of racism" and "ideological father" of the UstaÅ”e, while some UstaÅ”e ideologues have linked StarÄeviÄ's racial ideas to Adolf Hitler's racial ideology.
Frank's party embraced StarÄeviÄ's position that Serbs are an obstacle to Croatian political and territorial ambitions, and the aggressive anti-Serb attitudes became one of the main characteristics of the party. The followers of the ultranationalist Pure Party of Right were known as the Frankists (Frankovci) and they would become the main pool of members of the subsequent UstaÅ”e movement. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungarian Empire, the provisional state was formed on the southern territories of the Empire which joined the Allies-associate Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia), ruled by the Serbian KaraÄorÄeviÄ dynasty. Historian John Paul Newman explained that the influence of the Frankists, as well as the legacy of the World War I had an impact on the UstaÅ”e ideology and their future genocidal means. Many war veterans had fought at various ranks and on various fronts on both the āvictoriousā and ādefeatedā sides of the war. Serbia suffered the biggest casualty rate in the world, while Croats fought in the Austro-Hungarian army and two of them served as military governors of Bosnia and occupied Serbia. They both endorsed AustriaāHungary's denationalizing plans in Serb-populated lands and supported the idea of incorporating tamed Serbia into the Empire. Newman stated that Austro-Hungarian officers' āunfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right, the UstaÅ”eā. The Frankists blamed Serbian nationalists for the defeat of Austria-Hungary and opposed the creation of Yugoslavia, which was identified by them as a cover for Greater Serbia. Šass Croatian national consciousness appeared after the establishment of a common state of South Slavs and it was directed against the new Kingdom, more precisely against Serbian predominance within it.
Early 20th century Croatian intellectuals Ivo Pilar, Äiro Truhelka and Milan Å ufflay influenced the UstaÅ”e concept of nation and racial identity, as well as the theory of Serbs as an inferior race. Pilar, historian, politician and lawyer, placed great emphasis on racial determinism arguing that Croats had been defined by the āNordic-Aryanā racial and cultural heritage, while Serbs had "interbred" with the "Balkan-Romanic Vlachsā. Truhelka, archeologist and historian, claimed that Bosnian Muslims were ethnic Croats, who, according to him, belonged to the racially superior Nordic race. On the other hand, Serbs belonged to the ādegenerate raceā of the Vlachs. The UstaÅ”e promoted the theories of historian and politician Å ufflay, who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been "one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries", which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918.
The outburst of Croatian nationalism after 1918 was one of the main threats for Yugoslavia's stability. During the 1920s, Ante PaveliÄ, lawyer, politician and one of the Frankists, emerged as a leading spokesman for Croatian independence. In 1927, he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy and founder of fascism, and presented his separatist ideas to him. PaveliÄ proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats. In that period, Mussolini was interested in Balkans with the aim of isolating Yugoslavia, by strengthening Italian influence on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea. British historian Rory Yeomans claims that there are indication that PaveliÄ had been considering the formation of some kind of nationalist insurgency group as early as 1928.
In June 1928, Stjepan RadiÄ, the leader of the largest and most popular Croatian party Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljaÄka stranka, HSS) was mortally wounded in the parliamentary chamber by PuniÅ”a RaÄiÄ, a Montenegrin Serb leader, former Chetnik member and deputy of the ruling Serb People's Radical Party. RaÄiÄ also shot two other HSS deputies dead and wounded two more. The killings provoked violent student protests in Zagreb. Trying to suppress the conflict between Croatian and Serbian political parties, King Alexander I proclaimed a dictatorship with the aim of establishing the āintegral Yugoslavismā and a single Yugoslav nation. The introduction of the royal dictatorship brought separatist forces to the fore, especially among the Croats and Macedonians. The UstaÅ”a ā Croatian Revolutionary Movement (Croatian: UstaÅ”a ā Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret) emerged as the most extreme movement of these. The UstaÅ”e was created in late 1929. Or early 1930 among radical and militant student and youth groups, which existed from the late 1920s. Precisely, the movement was founded by journalist Gustav PerÄec and Ante PaveliÄ. They were driven by a deep hatred of Serbs and Serbdom and claimed that, "Croats and Serbs were separated by an unbridgeable cultural gulf" which prevented them from ever living alongside each other. PaveliÄ accused the Belgrade government of propagating āa barbarian culture and Gypsy civilizationā, claiming they were spreading āatheism and bestial mentality in divine Croatiaā. Supporters of the UstaÅ”e planned genocide years before World War II, for example one of PaveliÄ's main ideologues, Mijo BabiÄ, wrote in 1932 that the UstaÅ”e "will cleanse and cut whatever is rotten from the healthy body of the Croatian people". In 1933, the UstaÅ”e presented "The Seventeen Principles" that formed the official ideology of the movement. The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation, promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by "blood" would be excluded from political life.
In order to explain what they saw as a "terror machine", and regularly referred to as āsome excessesā by individuals, the UstaÅ”e cited, among other things, policies of the inter-war Yugoslav government which they described as Serbian hegemony āthat cost the lives of thousand Croatsā. Historian Jozo Tomasevich explains that that argument is not true, claiming that between December 1918 and April 1941 about 280 Croats were killed for political reasons, and that no specific motive for the killings could be identified, as they may also be linked to clashes during the agrarian reform. Moreover, he stated that Serbs too were denied civil and political rights during the royal dictatorship. However, Tomasevich explains that the anti-Croatian policies of the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s, as well as, the shooting of the HSS deputies by RadiÄ were largely responsible for the creation, growth and nature of Croatian nationalist forces. This culminated in the UstaÅ”e movement and ultimately its anti-Serbian policies in the World War II, which was totally out of proportions to earlier anti-Croatian measures, in nature and extent. Yeomans explains that UstaÅ”e officials constantly emphasized crimes against Croats by the Yugoslav government and security forces, although many of them were imagined, though some of them real, as justification for their envisioned eradication of the Serbs. Political scientist Tamara PavasoviÄ TroÅ”t, commenting on historiography and textbooks, listed the claims that terror against Serbs arose as a result of ātheir previous hegemonyā as an example of the relativisation of UstaÅ”e crimes. Historian Aristotle Kallis explained that anti-Serb prejudices were a "chimera" which emerged through living together in Yugoslavia with continuity with previous stereotypes.
The UstaÅ”e functioned as a terrorist organization as well. The first UstaÅ”e center was established in Vienna, where brisk anti-Yugoslav propaganda soon developed and agents were prepared for terrorist actions. They organized the so-called Velebit uprising in 1932, assaulting police station in the village of BruÅ”ani in Lika. In 1934, the UstaÅ”e cooperated with Bulgarian, Hungarian and Italian right-wing extremists to assassinate King Alexander while he visited the French city of Marseille. PaveliÄ's fascist tendencies were apparent. The UstaÅ”e movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini. During the intensification of ties with Nazi Germany in the 1930s, PaveliÄ's concept of the Croatian nation became increasingly race-oriented.
Independent State of Croatia
Serbs (including Montenegrin Serbs)
Croats
Bosnian Muslims
Germans (Danube Swabians)
In April 1941, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers. After Nazi forces entered Zagreb on 10 April 1941, PaveliÄ's closest associate Slavko Kvaternik, proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) on a Radio Zagreb broadcast. Meanwhile, PaveliÄ and several hundred UstaÅ”e volunteers left their camps in Italy and travelled to Zagreb, where PaveliÄ declared a new government on 16 April 1941. He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik" (German: FĆ¼hrer, English: Chief leader). The NDH combined most of modern Croatia, all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Serbia into an "Italian-German quasi-protectorate". Serbs made up about 30% of the NDH population. The NDH was never fully sovereign. But it was a puppet state that enjoyed the greatest autonomy than any other regime in German-occupied Europe. The Independent State of Croatia was declared to be on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory".
This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.
ā Milovan ŽaniÄ, the minister of the NDH government, on 2 May 1941.
The UstaÅ”e became obsessed with creating an ethnically pure state. As outlined by UstaÅ”e ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan ŽaniÄ, the strategy to achieve an ethnically pure Croatia was that:
- One-third of the Serbs were to be killed
- One-third of the Serbs were to be expelled
- One-third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism
According to historian Ivo Goldstein, this formula was never published but it is undeniable that the UstaŔe applied it towards Serbs.
The UstaÅ”e movement received limited support from ordinary Croats. In May 1941, the UstaÅ”e had about 100,000 members who took the oath. Since Vladko MaÄek reluctantly called on the supporters of the Croatian Peasant Party to respect and co-operate with the new regime of Ante PaveliÄ, he was able to use the apparatus of the party and most of the officials from the former Croatian Banovina. Initially, Croatian soldiers who had previously served in the Austro-Hungarian army held the highest positions in the NDH armed forces.
Historian Irina Ognyanova stated that the similarities between the NDH and the Third Reich included the assumption that terror and genocide were necessary for the preservation of the state. Viktor GutiÄ made several speeches in early summer 1941, calling Serbs "former enemies" and "unwanted elements" to be cleansed and destroyed, and also threatened Croats who did not support their cause. Much of the ideology of the UstaÅ”e was based on Nazi racial theory. Like the Nazis, the UstaÅ”e deemed Jews, Romani, and Slavs to be sub-humans (Untermensch). They endorsed the claims from German racial theorists that Croats were not Slavs but a Germanic race. Their genocides against Serbs, Jews, and Romani were thus expressions of Nazi racial ideology. Adolf Hitler supported PaveliÄ in order to punish the Serbs. Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazisā decision to kill all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941 in late June which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazi killing of Jews. Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes against Serbs in the NDH were the āearliest total genocide to be attempted during the World War IIā.
Andrija ArtukoviÄ, the Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia, signed into law a number of racial laws. On 30 April 1941, the government adopted āthe legal order of racesā and āthe legal order of the protection of Atyan blood and the honor of Croatian peopleā. Croats and about 750,000 Bosnian Muslims, whose support was needed against the Serbs, were proclaimed Aryans. Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth concluded that Serbs were primary target of racial laws and murders. The UstaÅ”e introduced the laws to strip Serbs of their citizenship, livelihoods, and possessions. Similar to Jews in the Third Reich, Serbs were forced to wear armbands bearing the letter āPā, for Pravoslavac (Orthodox). (Likewise, Jews were forced to wear the armband with the letter "Ž", fort Židov (Jew). UstaÅ”e writers adopted dehumanizing rhetoric. In 1941, the usage of the Cyrillic script was banned, and in June 1941 began the elimination of "Eastern" (Serbian) words from Croatian, as well as the shutting down of Serbian schools. Ante PaveliÄ ordered, through the "Croatian state office for language", the creation of new words from old roots, and purged many Serbian words.
Whereas the UstaŔe persecution of Jews and Roma was systematic and represented an implementation of Nazi policies, their persecution of Serbs was rooted in a stronger "home grown" form of hatred, implemented with more variance due to the larger Serb population found across rural areas. This was done despite the fact it would degrade support for the regime, fueled Serb rebellion and jeopardized the stability of the NDH. The level of violence enacted against Serb communities often depended more on the intercommunal relations and inclinations of the respective local UstaŔe warlords than a well-structured policy.
Concentration and extermination camps
The UstaŔe set up temporary concentration camps in the spring of 1941 and laid the groundwork for a network of permanent camps in autumn. The creation of concentration camps and extermination campaign of Serbs had been planned by the UstaŔe leadership long before 1941. In UstaŔe state exhibits in Zagreb, the camps were portrayed as productive and "peaceful work camps", with photographs of smiling inmates.
Serbs, Jews and Romani were arrested and sent to concentration camps such as Jasenovac, Stara GradiÅ”ka, GospiÄ and Jadovno. There were 22ā26 camps in NDH in total. Historian Jozo Tomasevich described that the Jadovno concentration camp itself acted as a "way station" en route to pits located on Mount Velebit, where inmates were executed and dumped.
Approximately 90,000 of the Serb victims of genocide perished in concentration camps; the rest were killed in "direct terror", i.e. Punitive expeditions and razing of villages, pogroms, massacres and sporadic executions which mainly occurred between 1941 and 1942.
The largest and most notorious camp was the Jasenovac-Stara GradiÅ”ka complex, the largest extermination camp in the Balkans. An estimated 100,000 inmates perished there, most Serbs. Vjekoslav "Maks" LuburiÄ, the commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, announced the great "efficiency" of the Jasenovac camp at a ceremony on 9 October 1942, and also boasted: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."
Bounded by rivers and two barbed-wire fences making escape unlikely, the Jasenovac camp was divided into five camps, the first two closed in December 1941, while the rest were active until the end of the war. Stara GradiÅ”ka (Jasenovac V) held women and children. The Ciglana (brickyards, Jasenovac III) camp, the main killing ground and essentially a death camp, had 88% mortality rate, higher than Auschwitz's 84.6%. A former brickyard, a furnace was engineered into a crematorium, with witness testimony of some, including children, being burnt alive and stench of human flesh spreading in the camp. LuburiÄ had a gas chamber built at Jasenovac V, where a considerable number of inmates were killed during a three-month experiment with sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B, but this method was abandoned due to poor construction. Still, that method was unnecessary, as most inmates perished from starvation, disease (especially typhus), assaults with mallets, maces, axes, poison and knives. The srbosjek ("Serb-cutter") was a glove with an attached curved blade designed to cut throats. Large groups of people were regularly executed upon arrival outside camps and thrown into the river. Unlike German-run camps, Jasenovac specialized in brutal one-on-one violence, such as guards attacking barracks with weapons and throwing the bodies in the trenches. Some historians use a sentence from German sources: āEven German officers and SS men lost their cool when they saw (UstaÅ”e) ways and methods.ā
The infamous camp commander FilipoviÄ, dubbed fra Sotona ("brother Satan") and the "personification of evil", on one occasion drowned Serb women and children by flooding a cellar. FilipoviÄ and other camp commanders (such as Dinko Å akiÄ and his wife Nada Å akiÄ, the sister of Maks LuburiÄ), used ingenious torture. There were throat-cutting contests of Serbs, in which prison guards made bets among themselves as to who could slaughter the most inmates. It was reported that guard and former Franciscan priest Petar Brzica won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1,360 inmates. Inmates were tied and hit over the head with mallets and half-alive hung in groups by the Granik ramp crane, their intestines and necks slashed, then dropped into the river. When the Partisans and Allies closed in at the end of the war, the UstaÅ”e began mass liquidations at Jasenovac, marching women and children to death, and shooting most of the remaining male inmates, then torched buildings and documents before fleeing. Many prisoners were victims of rape, sexual mutilation and disembowelment, while induced cannibalism amongst the inmates also took place. Some survivors testified about drinking blood from the slashed throats of the victims and soap making from human corpses.
Children's concentration camps
The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis satellite to have erected camps specifically for children. Special camps for children were those at Sisak, Äakovo and Jastrebarsko, while Stara GradiÅ”ka held thousands of children and women. Historian Tomislav DuliÄ explained that the systematic murder of infants and children, who could not pose a threat to the state, serves as one important illustration of the genocidal character of UstaÅ”a mass killing.
The Holocaust and genocide survivors, including Božo Å varc, testified that UstaÅ”e tore off the children's hands, as well as, āapply a liquid to childrenās mouths with brushesā, which caused the children to scream and later die. The Sisak camp commander, aphysician Antun Najžer, was dubbed the "Croatian Mengele" by survivors.
Diana BudisavljeviÄ, a humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15,000 children from UstaÅ”e camps.
List of concentration and death camps
- Jasenovac (IāIV) ā around 100,000 inmates perished there, at least 52,000 Serbs
- Stara GradiÅ”ka (Jasenovac V) ā more than 12,000 inmates lost their lives, mostly Serbs
- GospiÄ ā between 24,000 and 42,000 inmates died, predominantly Serbs
- Jadovno ā between 15,000 and 48,000 Serbs and Jews perished there
- Slana and Metajna ā between 4,000 and 12,000 Serbs, Jews and communists died
- Sisak ā 6,693 children passed through the camp, mostly Serbs, between 1,152 and 1,630 died
- Danica ā around 5,000, mostly Serbs, were transported to the camp, some of them were executed
- Jastrebarsko ā 3,336 Serb children passing through the camp, between 449 and 1,500 died
- KruÅ”Äica ā around 5,000 Jews and Serbs were interred at the camp, while 3,000 lost their lives
- Äakovo ā 3,800 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred at the camp, at least 569 died
- Lobor ā more than 2,000 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred, at least 200 died
- Kerestinec ā 111 Serbs, Jews and communists were captured, 85 were killed
- SajmiÅ”te ā the camp at the NDH territory operated by the Einsatzgruppen and since May 1944 by UstaÅ”e; between 20,000 and 23,000 Serbs, Jews, Roma and anti-fascists died here
- Hrvatska Mitrovica ā the concentration camp in Sremska Mitrovica
Massacres
A large number of massacres were committed by the NDH armed forces, Croatian Home Guard (Domobrani) and UstaŔe Militia.
The UstaŔe Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade). They were predominantly recruited among the uneducated population and working class.
Besides ethnic Croats, the militia also contained Muslims where they accounted for an estimated 30% of the membership.
Violence against Serbs began in April 1941 and was initially limited in scope, primarily targeting Serb intelligentsia. By July however, the violence became "indiscriminate, widespread and systematic". Massacres of Serbs were focused in mixed areas with large Serb populations for necessity and efficiency.
In the summer of 1941, UstaÅ”e militias and death squads burnt villages and killed thousands of civilian Serbs in the country-side in sadistic ways with various weapons and tools. Men, women, children were hacked to death, thrown alive into pits and down ravines. Or set on fire in churches. Hardly ever were firearms used, more commonly, knived axes and such were utilized. Serb victims were dismembered, their ears and tongues cut off and eyes gouged out. Some Serb villages near Srebrenica and Ozren were wholly massacred while children were found impaled by stakes in villages between Vlasenica and Kladanj. The UstaÅ”e cruelty and sadism shocked even Nazi commanders. A Gestapo report to ReichsfĆ¼hrer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:
Increased activity of the bands ā» is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by UstaÅ”e units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The UstaÅ”e committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.
The UstaŔe's preference for cold weapons in carrying out their deeds was partly a result of the shortage of ammunition and firearms in the early course of the war, but also demonstrated the importance the regime placed on the cult of violence and personal slaughter, in particular through the usage of the knife.
Charles King emphasized that concentration camps are losing their central place in Holocaust and genocide research. Because a large proportion of victims perished in mass executions, ravines and pits. He explained that the actions of the German allies, including the Croatian one, and the town- and village-level elimination of minorities also played a significant role.
Central Croatia
On 28 April 1941, approximately 184ā196 Serbs from Bjelovar were summarily executed, after arrest orders by Kvaternik. It was the first act of mass murder committed by the UstaÅ”e upon coming to power, and presaged the wider campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war. A few days following the massacre of Bjelovar Serbs, the UstaÅ”e rounded up 331 Serbs in the village of OtoÄac. The victims were forced to dig their own graves before being hacked to death with axes. Among the victims was the local Orthodox priest and his son. The former was made to recite prayers for the dying as his son was killed. The priest was then tortured, his hair and beard was pulled out, eyes gouged out before he was skinned alive.
On 24ā25 July 1941, the UstaÅ”e militia captured the village of Banski Grabovac in the Banija region and murdered the entire Serb population of 1,100 peasants. On 24 July, over 800 Serb civilians were killed in the village of VlahoviÄ.
Between 29 June and 7 July 1941, 280 Serbs were killed and thrown into pits near Kostajnica. Large scale massacres took place in Staro Selo Topusko, including in the village of Pecka with 250 victims, and Perna where 427 old men and children were killed. A large number were also killed in VojiÅ”nica and Vrginmost. About 60% of Sadilovac residents lost their lives during the war. More than 400 Serbs were killed in their homes, including 185 children. On 17 April 1942, 99 Serbs were burned alive in the village of KolariÄ, near VojniÄ. A total of 3,849 inhabitants of the town of VojniÄ were massacred during the war, out of a total of approximately 5000 inhabitants. That same month, a total of 759 women, children and elderly Serbs were massacred near the village of Krstinja. On 31 July 1942, in the Sadilovac church the UstaÅ”e under Milan MesiÄ's command massacred more than 580 inhabitants of the surrounding villages, including about 270 children. At various dates, 2,019 primarily women and children were killed in the village of Rakovica.
Glina
On 11/12 May 1941, 260ā300 Serbs were herded into an Orthodox church and shot, after which it was set on fire. The idea for this massacre reportedly came from Mirko Puk, who was the Minister of Justice for the NDH. On 10 May, Ivica Å ariÄ, a specialist for such operations traveled to the town of Glina to meet with local UstaÅ”e leadership where they drew up a list of names of all the Serbs between sixteen and sixty years of age to be arrested. After much discussion, they decided that all of the arrested should be killed. Many of the town's Serbs heard rumors that something bad was in store for them but the vast majority did not flee. On the night of 11 May, mass arrests of male Serbs over the age of sixteen began. The UstaÅ”e then herded the group into an Orthodox Church and demanded that they be given documents proving the Serbs had all converted to Catholicism. Serbs who did not possess conversion certificates were locked inside and massacred. The church was then set on fire, leaving the bodies to burn as UstaÅ”e stood outside to shoot any survivors attempting to escape the flames.
A similar massacre of Serbs occurred on 30 July 1941. 700 Serbs were gathered into a church under the premise that they would be converted. Victims were killed by having their throats cut or by having their heads smashed in with rifle butts. Between 500 and 2000 other Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring villages by Vjekoslav "Maks" LuburiÄ's forces, continuing until 3 August. In these massacres specifically males 16 years and older were killed. Only one of the victims, Ljubo Jednak, survived by playing dead.
Lika
The district of GospiÄ experienced the first large-scale massacres which occurred in the Lika region, as some 3,000 Serb civilians were killed between late July and early August 1941. UstaÅ”e officials reported an emerging Serb rebellion due to massacres. In late July 1941, a detachment of the Croatian military in GospiÄ noted that the local insurgents were Serb peasants who had fled to the woods "purely as a reaction to the cleansing ā» against them by our UstaÅ”a formations". Following a sabotage of railway tracks in the district of VojniÄ that was attributed to local communists on 27 July 1941, the UstaÅ”e began a "cleansing" operation of indiscriminate pillage and killing of civilians, including the elderly and children.
On 6 August 1941, the UstaÅ”e killed and burned more than 280 villagers in Mlakva, including 191 children. Between June and August 1941, about 890 Serbs from LiÄko Petrovo Selo and Melinovac were killed and thrown in the so-called DeliÄ pit.
During the war, the UstaÅ”e massacred more than 900 Serbs in Divoselo, more than 500 in Smiljan, as well as more than 400 in Å iroka Kula near GospiÄ. On 2 August 1941, the UstaÅ”e trapped about 120 children and women and 50 men who tried to escape from Divoselo. After a few days of imprisonment, where women were raped, they were stabbed in groups and thrown into the pits.
Slavonia
On 21 December 1941, approximately 880 Serbs from Dugo Selo Lasinjsko and Prkos Lasinjski were killed in the Brezje forest. On the Serbian New Year, 14 January 1942, the biggest slaughter of the civilians from Slavonia started. Villages were burned, and about 350 people were deported to VoÄin and executed.
Syrmia
In August 1942, following the joint military anti-partisan operation in the Syrmia by the UstaÅ”e and German Wehrmacht, it turned into a massacre by the UstaÅ”e militia that left up to 7,000 Serbs dead. Among those killed was the prominent painter Sava Å umanoviÄ, who was arrested along with 150 residents of Å id, and then tortured by having his arms cut off.
Bosnian Krajina
In August 1941 on the Eastern Orthodox Elijah's holy day, who is the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 2,800 and 5,500 Serbs from Sanski Most and the surrounding area were killed and thrown into pits which have been dug by victims themselves.
During the war, the NDH armed forces killed over 7,000 Serbs in the municipality of Kozarska Dubica, while the municipality lost more than half of its pre-war population. The biggest massacre was committed by the Croatian Home Guard in January 1942, when the village DrakseniÄ was burned and more than 200 were people killed.
In February 1942, the UstaÅ”e under Miroslav FilipoviÄ's command massacred 2,300 adults and 550 children in Serb-populated villages DrakuliÄ, Motike and Å argovac. The children were chosen as the first victims and their body parts were cut off.
Garavice
From July to September 1941, thousands of Serbs were massacred along with some Jews and Roma victims at Garavice, an extermination location near BihaÄ. On the night of 17 June 1941, UstaÅ”e began the mass killing of previously captured Serbs, who were brought by trucks from the surrounding towns to Garavice. The bodies of the victims were thrown into mass graves. A large amount of blood contaminated the local water supply.
Herzegovina
On 9 May 1941, approximately 400 Serbs were rounded up from several villages and executed in a pit behind a school in the village of Blagaj. On 31 May, between 120 and 270 Serbs were rounded up near Trebinje and executed.
On 2 June 1941, UstaÅ”e authorities led by Herman Tongl in the municipality of Gacko issued an order to the Serb inhabitants of the villages of Korita and Zagradci demanding that all males above the age of fifteen report to a building in the village of Stepen. Once there, they were imprisoned for two days and on 4 June, the prisoners who numbered about 170 were tied together in groups of two or three, loaded onto a lorry and driven to the GolubnjaÄa limestone pit near Kobilja Glava where they were shot, beaten with poles, cudgels, axes and picks and thrown into the pit. On June 22, under the ruse that Serbs were planning to launch an offensive prior to the Vidovdan holiday, Tongl enlisted locals to massacre Serb farmers in four districts. The victims included women who were raped as well as children; some were thrown into pits while others were taken near the Neretva river and executed there. On June 23, 80 people from three villages near Gacko were killed.
On 2 June 1941, the UstaŔe killed 140 peasants near the town of Ljubinje and on 23 June killed an additional 160. In the municipality of Stolac, nearly 260 were killed during the course of two days.
In the Livno Field area, the UstaŔe killed over 1,200 Serbs including 370 children. In the Koprivnica Forest near Livno, around 300 citizen were tortured and killed. About 300 children, women and the elderly were killed and thrown into the Ravni Dolac pit in Donji Rujani.
From 4ā6 August 1941, 650 women and children killed by being thrown into the Golubinka pit near Å urmanci. Also, hand grenades were thrown at dead bodies. Some 4000 Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring places during that summer.
Drina Valley
Some 70-200 Serbs massacred by Muslim UstaÅ”e forces in RaÅ”iÄa Gaj, Vlasenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 22 June and 20 July 1941, after raping women and girls. Many Serbs were executed by UstaÅ”e along the Drina Valley for a months, especially near ViÅ”egrad. Jure FrancetiÄ's Black Legion killed thousands of defenceless Bosnian Serb civilians and threw their bodies into the Drina river. In 1942, about 6,000 Serbs were killed in Stari Brod near Rogatica and MiloÅ”eviÄi.
Sarajevo
During the summer of 1941, UstaÅ”e militia periodically interned and executed groups of Sarajevo Serbs. In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps. The UstaÅ”e killed at least 323 people in the Villa LuburiÄ, a slaughter house and place for torturing and imprisoning Serbs, Jews and political dissidents.
Expulsion and ethnic cleansing
Expulsions was one of the pillar of the UstaŔe plan to create a pure Croat state. The first to be forced to leave were war veterans from the World War I Macedonian front who lived in Slavonia and Syrmia. By mid-1941, 5,000 Serbs had been expelled to German-occupied Serbia. The general plan was to have prominent people deported first, so their property could be nationalized and the remaining Serbs could then be more easily manipulated. By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.
The Drina is the border between the East and West. Godās Providence placed us to defend our border, which our allies are well aware and value, because for centuries we have proven that we are good frontiersmen.
ā Mile Budak, the minister of the NDH government, August 1941.
Advocates of expulsion presented it as a necessary measure for the creation of a socially functional nation state, and also rationalized these plans by comparing it with the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The UstaŔe set up holding camps, with the aim of gathering a large number of people and deporting them. The NDH government also formed the Office of Colonization to resettle Croats on reclaimed land. During the summer of 1941, the expulsions were carried out with the significant participation of the local population. Many representatives of local elites, including Bosnian Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germans in Slavonia and Syrmia, played an active role in the expulsion.
An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the NDH to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943. By the end of July 1941 according to the German authorities in Serbia, 180,000 Serbs defected from the NDH to Serbia and by the end of September that number exceeded 200,000. In that same period 14,733 persons were legally relocated from the NDH to Serbia. In turn, the NDH had to accept more than 200,000 Slovenian refugees who were forcefully evicted from their homes as part of the German plan of annexing parts of the Slovenian territories. In October 1941, organized migration was stopped because the German authorities in Serbia forbid further immigration of Serbs. According to documentation of the Commissariat for Refugees and Immigrants in Belgrade, in 1942 and 1943 illegal departures of individuals from NDH to Serbia still existed, numbering an estimated 200,000 though these figures are incomplete.
Religious persecution
The UstaÅ”e viewed religion and nationality as being closely linked; while Roman Catholicism and Islam (Bosnian Muslims were viewed as Croats) were recognized as Croatian national religions, Eastern Orthodoxy was deemed inherently incompatible with the Croatian state project. They saw Orthodoxy as hostile because it was identified as Serb (prior to 1920, the Orthodox dioceses in most of Croatian lands belonged to an independent Patriarchate of Karlovci). To a certain extent, the campaign of terror could be seen as similar Crusades of medieval ages; a religious crusade. On 3 May 1941, a law was passed on religious conversions, pressuring Serbs to convert to Catholicism and thereby adopt Croat identity. This was made on the eve of PaveliÄ's meeting with Pope Pius XII in Rome. The Catholic Church in Croatia, headed by archbishop Aloysius Stepinac, greeted it and adopted it into the Church's internal law. The term "Serbian Orthodox" was banned in mid-May as being incompatible with state order, and the term "Greek-Eastern faith" was used in its place. By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.
To erase all history of Serbs and the Orthodox religion, churches (some of which dated to 1200s and 1300s) were razed to the ground or denigrated by using them as stables or barns etc.
The UstaŔa movement is based on religion. Therefore, our acts stem from our devotion to religion and the Roman Catholic church.
ā the chief UstaÅ”e ideologist Mile Budak, 13 July 1941.
UstaÅ”e propaganda legitimized the persecution as being partially based on the historic CatholicāOrthodox struggle for domination in Europe and Catholic intolerance towards the "schismatics". Following the start of Serb insurgency (July 1941), the State Directorate for Regeneration in the autumn of 1941 launched a program aimed at the mass forced conversion of the Serbs. Already in the summer, the UstaÅ”e had closed or destroyed most of the Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries and deported, imprisoned or murdered Orthodox priests and bishops. Over 150 Serbian Orthodox priests were also killed between May and December 1941. The conversions were meant to Croatianize and permanently destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church. Roman Catholic priest Krunoslav DraganoviÄ argued that many Catholics were converted to Orthodoxy during the 16th and 17th centuries, which was later used as the basis for the UstaÅ”e conversion program.
The conversion policy had a particular aspect: only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion, since illiterate peasants were presumed to have less of a Serb/Orthodox identity. People with secondary education etc. (and especially Orthodox clergy) were not eligible. Educated people were singled out for expulsion or extermination, states Robert B. McCormick.
The Vatican was not opposed to the forced conversions. On 6 February 1942, Pope Pius XII privately received 206 UstaÅ”e members in uniforms and blessed them, symbolically supporting their actions. On 8 February 1942, the envoy to the Holy See, Nikola RusinoviÄ, said that 'the Holy See rejoiced' at forced conversions. In a 21 February 1942 letter to Cardinal Luigi Maglione, the Holy See's secretary encouraged the Croatian bishops to speed up the conversions, and he also stated that the term "Orthodox" should be replaced with the terms "apostates or schismatics". Many fanatical Catholic priests joined the UstaÅ”e, blessed and supported their work, and participated in killings and conversions.
In 1941ā1942, some 200,000 or 240,000ā250,000 Serbs were converted to Roman Catholicism, although most of them only practiced it temporarily. Converts would sometimes be killed anyway, often in the same churches where they were re-baptized. 85% of the Serbian Orthodox clergy was killed or expelled. In Lika, Kordun and Banija alone, 172 Serbian Orthodox churches were closed, destroyed, or plundered.
The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust described that the bishops' conference that met in Zagreb in November 1941 was not prepared to denounce the forced conversion of Serbs that had taken place in the summer of 1941, let alone condemn the persecution and murder of Serbs and Jews. Many Catholic priests in Croatia approved of and supported the UstaŔe's large scale attacks on the Serbian Orthodox Church, and the Catholic hierarchy did not issue any condemnation of the crimes, either publicly or privately. The Croatian Catholic Church and the Vatican viewed the UstaŔe's policies against the Serbs as being advantageous to Roman Catholicism.
The puppet "Croatian Orthodox Church"
After the matter of forced conversion had become extremely controversial, the NDH government on 3 April 1942 adopted a law that established the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church. This was done in order to replace the institutions of the Serbian Orthodox Church. According to the "Statute concerning the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church" that was approved on 5 June, the Church was "indivisible in its unity and autocephalous". In June, White Russian Ć©migrĆ© Germogen Maximov, an archbishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, was enthroned as its primate. The establishment of the Church was done in order to try and pacify the state as well as to Croatisize the remaining Serb population once the UstaÅ”e realized that the complete eradication of Serbs in the NDH was unattainable. Persecution of Serbs continued however, but was less intense.
Persecution of Serbian Orthodox clergy
Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church dioceses in the Independent State of Croatia were targeted during religious persecutions. On 5 May 1941, the UstaÅ”e tortured and killed Platon JovanoviÄ of Banja Luka. On 12 May, Bishop Petar ZimonjiÄ, Metropolitan of the Eparchy of Dabar-Bosna, was killed and in mid-August Bishop Sava TrlajiÄ was killed. Dositej VasiÄ, the Metropolitan of the Metropolitanate of Zagreb and Ljubljana died in 1945 as result of wounds from torture by UstaÅ”e. Nikola JovanoviÄ, the Bishop of the Eparchy of Zahumlje and Herzegovina died in 1944, after he was beaten by the UstaÅ”e and expelled to Serbia. Irinej ÄorÄeviÄ, the Bishop of the Eparchy of Dalmatia was interned to Italian captivity. There were 577 Serbian Orthodox priests, monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH in April 1941. By December, there were none left. Between 214 and 217 were killed, 334 were exiled, eighteen fled and five died of natural causes. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 71 Orthodox priests were killed by the UstaÅ”e during WWII, 10 by the Partisans, 5 by the Germans, and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII.
According to Serb Orthodox Church data, out of approximately 700 clergymen and monks of the NDH territory, 577 were subjected to persecution, out of these 217 were killed, 334 were deported to Serbia, 3 were arrested, 18 managed to escape and 5 died (later) from consequences of torture.
The role of Aloysius Stepinac
A cardinal Aloysius Stepinac served as Archbishop of Zagreb during World War II and pledged his loyalty to the NDH. Scholars still debate the degree of Stepinac's contact with the UstaÅ”e regime. Mark Biondich stated that he was not an āardent supporterā of the Ustahsa regime legitimising their every policy, nor an āavowed opponentā publicly denounced its crimes in a systematic manner. While some clergy committed war crimes in the name of the Catholic Church, Stepinac practiced a wary ambivalence. He was an early supporter of the goal of creating a Catholic Croatia, but soon began to question the regime's mandate of forced conversion.
Historian Tomasevich praised his statements that were made against the UstaÅ”e regime by Stepinac, as well as his actions against the regime. However, he also noted that these same statements and actions had shortcomings in respect to UstaÅ”e's genocidal actions against the Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church. As Stepinac failed to publicly condemn the genocide waged against the Serbs by the UstaÅ”e earlier during the war as he would later on. Tomasevich stated that Stepinac's courage against the UstaÅ”e state earned him great admiration among anti-UstaÅ”e Croats in his flock along with many others. However this came with the price of enmity of the UstaÅ”e and PaveliÄ personally. In the early part of the war, he strongly supported a Yugoslavian state organized with federal lines. It was generally known that Stepinac and PaveliÄ thoroughly hated each other. The Germans considered him Pro-Western and āfriend of the Jewsā leading to hostility from German and Italian forces.
On 14 May 1941, Stepinac received word of an UstaÅ”e massacre of Serb villagers at Glina. On the same day, he wrote to PaveliÄ saying:
I consider it my bishop's responsibility to raise my voice and to say that this is not permitted according to Catholic teaching, which is why I ask that you undertake the most urgent measures on the entire territory of the Independent State of Croatia, so that not a single Serb is killed unless it is shown that he committed a crime warranting death. Otherwise, we will not be able to count on the blessing of heaven, without which we must perish.
These were still private protest letters. Later in 1942 and 1943, Stepinac started to speak out more openly against the UstaŔe genocides, this was after most of the genocides were already committed, and it became increasingly clear the Nazis and UstaŔe will be defeated. In May 1942, Stepinac spoke out against genocide, mentioning Jews and Roma, but not Serbs.
Tomasevich wrote that while Stepinac is to be commended for his actions against the regime, the failure of the Croatian Catholic hierarchy and Vatican to publicly condemn the genocide "cannot be defended from the standpoint of humanity, justice and common decency". In his diary, Stepinac said that "Serbs and Croats are of two different worlds, north and south pole, which will never unite as long as one of them is alive", along with other similar views. Historian Ivo Goldstein described that Stepinac was being sympathetic to the UstaÅ”e authorities and ambivalent towards the new racial laws, as well as that he was āa man with many dilemmas in a disturbing timeā. Stepinac resented the interwar conversion of some 200,000 mostly Croatian Catholics to Orthodoxy, which he felt was forced on them by prevailing political conditions. In 2016 Croatia's rehabilitation of Stepinac was negatively received in Serbia and Republika Srpska, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Toll of victims and genocide classification
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website states that "Determining the number of victims for Yugoslavia, for Croatia, and for Jasenovac is highly problematic, due to the destruction of many relevant documents, the long-term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived, and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism".
In the 1980s, calculations of World War II victims in Yugoslavia were made by the Serb statistician Bogoljub KoÄoviÄ and the Croat demographer Vladimir ŽerjaviÄ. Tomasevich described their studies as being objective and reliable. KoÄoviÄ estimated that 370,000 Serbs, both combatants and civilians, died in the NDH during the war. With a possible error of around 10%, he noted that Serb losses cannot be higher than 410,000. He did not estimate the number of Serbs who were killed by the UstaÅ”e, saying that in most cases, the task of categorizing the victims would be impossible. ŽerjaviÄ estimated that the total number of Serb deaths in the NDH was 322,000, of which 125,000 died as combatants, while 197,000 were civilians. ŽerjaviÄ estimated that a total of 78,000 civilians were killed in UstaÅ”e prisons, pits and camps, including Jasenovac, 45,000 civilians were killed by the Germans, 15,000 civilians were killed by the Italians, 34,000 civilians were killed in battles between the warring parties, and 25,000 civilians died of typhoid. The number of victims who perished in the Jasenovac concentration camp remains a matter of debate, but current estimates put the total number at around 100,000, about half of whom were Serbs.
During the war as well as during Tito's Yugoslavia, various numbers were given for Yugoslavia's overall war casualties. Estimates by Holocaust memorial centers also vary. The historian Jozo Tomasevich said that the exact number of victims in Yugoslavia is impossible to determine. The academic Barbara Jelavich however cites Tomasevich's estimate in writing that as many as 350,000 Serbs were killed during the period of UstaÅ”e rule. The historian Rory Yeomans said that the most conservative estimates state that 200,000 Serbs were killed by UstaÅ”e death squads but the actual number of Serbs who were executed by the UstaÅ”e or perished in UstaÅ”e concentration camps may be as high as 500,000. In a 1992 work, Sabrina P. Ramet cites the figure of 350,000 Serbs who were "liquidated" by "PaveliÄ and his UstaÅ”e henchmen". In a 2006 work, Ramet estimated that at least 300,000 Serbs were "massacred by the UstaÅ”e". In her 2007 book "The Independent State of Croatia 1941-45", Ramet cites ŽerjaviÄ's overall figures for Serb losses in the NDH. Marko Attila Hoare writes that "perhaps nearly 300,000 Serbs" died as a result of the UstaÅ”e genocide and the Nazi policies.
Tomislav DuliÄ stated that Serbs in NDH suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II. American historian Stanley G. Payne stated that direct and indirect executions by NDH regime were an āextraordinary mass crimeā, which in proportionate terms exceeded any other European regime beside Hitler's Third Reich. He added the crimes in the NDH were proportionately surpassed only by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and several of the extremely genocidal African regimes. Raphael Israeli wrote that āa large scale genocidal operations, in proportions to its small population, remain almost unique in the annals of wartime Europe.ā
In Serbia as well as in the eyes of Serbs, the UstaÅ”e atrocities constituted a genocide. Many historians and authors describe the UstaÅ”e regime's mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide, including Raphael Lemkin who is known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention. Croatian historian Mirjana KasapoviÄ explained that in the most important scientific works on genocide, crimes against Serbs, Jews and Roma in the NDH are unequivocally classified as genocide.
Yad Vashem, Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, stated that āUstasha carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000, and forcing another 250,000 to convert to Catholicismā. The Simon Wiesenthal Center, also, mentioned that leaders of the Independent State of Croatia committed genocide against Serbs, Jews, and Roma. Presidents of Croatia, Stjepan MesiÄ and Ivo JosipoviÄ, as well as Bakir IzetbegoviÄ and Željko KomÅ”iÄ, Bosniak and Croat member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also described the persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia as a genocide.
In the post-war era, the Serbian Orthodox Church considered the Serbian victims of this genocide to be martys. As a result, the Serbian Orthodox Church commemorates the Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac on 13 September.
Aftermath
The Yugoslav communist authorities did not use the Jasenovac camp as was done with other European concentration camps, most likely due to Serb-Croat relations. They recognized that ethnic tensions stemming from the war could have had the capacity to destabilize the new communist regime, and subsequently tried to conceal wartime atrocities and mask specific ethnic losses. The Tito's government attempted to let the wounds heal and forge "brotherhood and unity" in the peoples. Tito himself was invited to, and passed Jasenovac several times, but never visited the site. The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because the Yugoslav communist government did not encourage independent scholars. Historians Marko Attila Hoare and Mark Biondich stated that Western world historians don't pay enough attention to the genocide committed by UstaŔe, while several scholars described it as lesser-known genocide.
World War II and especially its ethnic conflicts have been deemed instrumental in the later Yugoslav Wars (1991ā95).
Trials
Mile Budak and a number of other members of the NDH government, such as Nikola MandiÄ and Julije Makanec, were tried and convicted of high treason and war crimes by the communist authorities of the SFR Yugoslavia. Many of them were executed. Miroslav FilipoviÄ, the commandant of the Jasenovac and Stara GradiÅ”ka camps, was found guilty for war crimes, sentenced to death and hanged.
Many others escaped, including the supreme leader Ante PaveliÄ, most to Latin America. Some emigrations were prevented by the Operation Gvardijan, in which Ljubo MiloÅ”, the commandant of the Jasenovac camp was captured and executed. Aloysius Stepinac, who served as Archbishop of Zagreb was found guilty of high treason and forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism. However, some claim the trial was "carried out with proper legal procedure".
In its judgment in the Hostages Trial, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal concluded that the Independent State of Croatia was not a sovereign entity capable of acting independently of the German military, despite recognition as an independent state by the Axis powers. According to the Tribunal, "Croatia was at all times here involved an occupied country". The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide were not in force at the time. It was unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and entered into force on 12 January 1951.
Andrija ArtukoviÄ, Minister of Internal Affairs and Minister of Justice of the NDH who signed a number of racial laws, escaped to the United States after the war and he was extradited to Yugoslavia in 1986, where he was tried in the Zagreb District Court and was found guilty of a number of mass killings in the NDH. ArtukoviÄ was sentenced to death, but the sentence was not carried out due to his age and health. Efraim Zuroff, a Nazi hunter, played a significant role in capturing Dinko Å akiÄ, another Jasenovac camp commander, during 1990s. After pressure from the international community on the right-wing president Franjo TuÄman, he sought Å akiÄ's extradition and he stood trial in Croatia, aged 78; he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and given the maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment. According to the human rights researchers Eric Stover, Victor Peskin and Alexa Koenig it was "the most important post-Cold War domestic effort to hold criminally accountable a Nazi war crimes suspect in a former Eastern European communist country".
Ratlines, terrorism and assassinations
With the Partisan liberation of Yugoslavia, many UstaÅ”e leaders fled and took refuge at the college of San Girolamo degli Illirici near the Vatican. Catholic priest and UstaÅ”e Krunoslav DraganoviÄ directed the fugitives from San Girolamo. The US State Department and Counter-Intelligence Corps helped war criminals to escape, and assisted DraganoviÄ (who later worked for the American intelligence) in sending UstaÅ”e abroad. Many of those responsible for mass killings in NDH took refuge in South America, Portugal, Spain and the United States. LuburiÄ was assassinated in Spain in 1969 by an UDBA agent; ArtukoviÄ lived in Ireland and California until extradited in 1986 and died of natural causes in prison; Dinko Å akiÄ and his wife Nada lived in Argentina until extradited in 1998, Dinko dying in prison and his wife released. DraganoviÄ also arranged Gestapo functionary Klaus Barbie's flight.
Among some of the Croat diaspora, the UstaÅ”e became heroes. UstaÅ”e Ć©migrĆ© terrorist groups in the diaspora (such as Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood and Croatian National Resistance) carried out assassinations and bombings, and also plane hijackings, throughout the Yugoslav period.
Controversy and denial
Historical negationism
Some Croats, including politicians, have attempted to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia. Historian Mirjana KasapoviÄ concluded that there are three main strategies of historical revisionism in the part of Croatian historiography: the NDH was a normal counter-insurgency state at the time; no mass crimes were committed in the NDH, especially genocide; the Jasenovac camp was just a labor camp, not an extermination camp.
By 1989, the future President of Croatia, Franjo TuÄman had embraced Croatian nationalism and published Horrors of War: Historical Reality and Philosophy, in which he questioned the official number of victims killed by the UstaÅ”e during the Second World War. In his book,TuÄman claimed that between 30,000 and 40,000 died at Jasenovac. Some scholars and observers accused TuÄman of racist statements, āflirting with ideas associated with the UstaÅ”e movementā, appointment of former UstaÅ”e officials to political and military positions, as well as downplaying the number of victims in the Independent State of Croatia.
Since 2016, anti-fascist groups, leaders of Croatia's Serb, Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials have boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp because, as they said, Croatian authorities refused to denounce the UstaŔe legacy explicitly and they downplayed and revitalized crimes committed by UstaŔe.
Destruction of memorials
After Croatia gained independence, about 3,000 monuments dedicated to the anti-fascist resistance and the victims of fascism were destroyed. According to Croatian World War II veterans' association, these destructions were not spontaneous, but a planned activity carried out by the ruling party, the state and the church. The status of the Jasenovac Memorial Site was downgraded to the nature park, and parliament cut its funding. In September 1991, Croatian forces entered the memorial site and vandalized the museum building, while exhibitions and documentation were destroyed, damaged and looted. In 1992, FR Yugoslavia sent a formal protest to the United Nations and UNESCO, warning of the devastation of the memorial complex. The European Community Monitor Mission visited the memorial center and confirmed the damage.
Commemoration
Israeli President Moshe Katsav visited Jasenovac in 2003. His successor, Shimon Peres, paid homage to the camp's victims when he visited Jasenovac on 25 July 2010 and laid a wreath at the memorial. Peres dubbed the UstaŔe's crimes a "demonstration of sheer sadism".
The Jasenovac Memorial Museum reopened in November 2006 with a new exhibition designed by a Croatian architect, Helena Paver NjiriÄ, and an Educational Center, designed by the firm Produkcija. The Memorial Museum features an interior of rubber-clad steel modules, video and projection screens, and glass cases displaying artifacts from the camp. Above the exhibition space, which is quite dark, is a field of glass panels inscribed with the names of the victims.
The New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee and the Jasenovac Research Institute, with the help of then-Congressman Anthony Weiner (D-NY), established a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of the camps.) The dedication ceremony was attended by ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors, as well as diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia and Israel. It remains the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside the Balkans.
Nowadays, Š¾n 22 April, the anniversary of the prisoner breakout from the Jasenovac camp, Serbia marks the National Holocaust, World War II Genocide and other Fascist Crimes Victims Remembrance Day, while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site. Serbia and Bosnian entity of Republika Srpska hold a joint central commemoration at the Donja Gradina Memorial Zone.
In 2018, an exhibition named āJasenovac ā The Right to Remembranceā was held in the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City within the marking of International Holocaust Remembrance Day, with the main goal of to foster a culture of remembrance of Serb, Jewish, Roma and anti-fascist victims of the Holocaust and genocide in the Jasenovac camp. On 22 April 2020, the president of Serbia Aleksandar VuÄiÄ had an official visit to the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica, dedicated to the victims of genocide on the territory of Syrmia.
Commemoration ceremonies honoring the victims of the Jadovno concentration camp have been organized by the Serb National Council (SNV), the Jewish community in Croatia, and local anti-fascists since 2009, while 24 June has been designated as a "Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp" in Croatia. On 26 August 2010, the 68th anniversary of the partial liberation of the Jastrebarsko children's camp, victims were commemorated in a ceremony at a monument in the Jastrebarsko cemetery. It was attended by only 40 people, mainly members of the Union of Anti-Fascist Fighters and Anti-Fascists of the Republic of Croatia. The Republic of Srpska Government holds a commemoration at the memorial site of the victims of the UstaŔe massacres in the Drina Valley.
In culture
Literature
- Jama, a poem condemning the crimes of the UstaÅ”e, written by Ivan Goran KovaÄiÄ
- Eagles Fly Early, a novel about children role in assisting the Partisans in the resistance against the UstaÅ”e, written by Branko ÄopiÄ
- Konclogor na Savi, an account by Ilija JakovljeviÄ
Art
- Zlatko Prica and Edo MurtiÄ illustrated scenes from the Ivan Goran KovaÄiÄ's poem Jama
Theater
- GolubnjaÄa, a play by Jovan RaduloviÄ about ethnic relations in neighboring villages in the years after the UstaÅ”e crimes
Films
- 1955 ā Å olaja, a film about Serb rebellion against the genocide, directed by Vojislav NanoviÄ
- 1960 ā The Ninth Circle, a film directed by France Å tiglic, includes scenes from the Jasenovac camp
- 1966 ā Eagles Fly Early, film based on the eponymous novel directed by Soja JovanoviÄ
- 1967 ā Black Birds, a film about a group of prisoners of Stara GradiÅ”ka concentration camp, directed by Eduard GaliÄ
- 1984 ā The End of the War, a film about Serbian man takes his son to find and kill members of the UstaÅ”e militia who tortured and killed his wife and mother, directed by Dragan Kresoja
- 1988 ā BraÄa po materi, a film about UstaÅ”e atrocities told through the story of two half-brothers, a Croat and a Serb, directed by Zdravko Å otra
- 2016 ā Prva treÄina ā oproÅ”taj kao kazna, a short feature film about the Žile FriganoviÄ's massacres, directed by Svetlana Petrov
- 2019 ā The Diary of Diana B., a biographical film about aid operation of Diana BudisavljeviÄ for the rescue of more than 10,000 children from concentration camps, directed by Dana BudisavljeviÄ
- 2020 ā Dara of Jasenovac, a film about a girl who survived the Jasenovac camp, directed by Predrag AntonijeviÄ
TV Series
- 1981 ā Nepokoreni grad, a TV series about UstaÅ”e terror campaign, including the Kerestinec camp, directed by VanÄa KljakoviÄ and Eduard GaliÄ
Music
- Some survivors claim that the lyrics of the famous song "ÄurÄevdan" was written on a train that took prisoners from Sarajevo to the Jasenovac camp.
- Thompson, a Croatian rock band, has garnered controversy for their purported glorification of Ustashe regime in their songs and concerts, and the most famous such song is "Jasenovac i GradiŔka Stara".
See also
Annotations
- ^ During the war, German military commanders gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed by the UstaÅ”e inside the NDH. Alexander Lƶhr claimed 400,000 Serbs killed, Massenbach around 700,000. Hermann Neubacher stated that Ustashe claims of a million Serbs slaughtered was a "boastful exaggeration", and believed that the number of 'defenseless victims slaughtered to be three-quarters of a million'. The Vatican cited 350,000 Serbs slaughtered by the end of 1942 (EugĆØne Tisserant). Yugoslavia presented 1,700,000 as its war casualties, produced by mathematician Vladeta VuÄkoviÄ, at the Paris Peace Treaties (1947). A secret 1964 government list counted 597,323 victims (out of which 346,740 were Serbs). In the 1980s Croat economist Vladimir ŽerjaviÄ concluded that the number of victims was around one million. Furthermore, he claimed that the number of Serb victims in the Independent State of Croatia was between 300,000 and 350,000, with 80,000 victims of all ethnicity in Jasenovac. Since the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Croatian side began suggesting substantially smaller numbers, while the Serbian side maintains the exaggerated numbers promoted within Yugoslavia until the 1990s.
- ^ The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum lists (as of 2012) a total of 320,000ā340,000 ethnic Serbs killed in Croatia and Bosnia, and 45ā52,000 killed at Jasenovac. The Yad Vashem center claims that more than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in Croatia, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert to Catholicism.
- ^ According to K. UngvĆ”ry the actual number of Serbs deported was 25,000. Ramet cites the German statement. Serbian Orthodox bishop in America Dionisije MilivojeviÄ claimed 50,000 Serb colonists and settlers deported and 60,000 killed in the Hungarian occupation.
- ^ The only official Yugoslav data of war-victims in Kosovo and Metohija is from 1964, and counted 7,927 people, out of which 4,029 were Serbs, 1,460 Montenegrins, and 2,127 Albanians.
Footnotes
- ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 158.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 114.
- ^ Baker 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Bellamy 2013, p. 96.
- ^ Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 18.
- ^ Christia 2012, p. 206.
- ^ Korb 2010a, p. 512.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, p. 5.
- ^ Touval 2001, p. 105.
- ^ Jonassohn & Bjƶrnson 1998, p. 281, Carmichael & Maguire 2015, p. 151, Tomasevich 2001, p. 347, Mojzes 2011, p. 54, Kallis 2008, pp. 130ā132, Suppan 2014, p. 1005 , Fischer 2007, pp. 207ā208, Bideleux & Jeffries 2007, p. 187, McCormick 2008
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 347, 404,Yeomans 2015, pp. 265ā266, Kallis 2008, pp. 130ā132,Fischer 2007, pp. 207ā208, Bideleux & Jeffries 2007, p. 187, McCormick 2008, Newman 2017
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. 207.
- ^ Jonassohn & Bjƶrnson 1998, p. 281.
- ^ JUŽNOSLAVENSKO PITANJE. Prikaz cjelokupnog pitanja (Die sĆ¼dslawische Frage und der Weltkrieg: Ćbersichtliche Darstellung des Gesamt-problems). Prevod: Fedor Pucek, Matica hrvatska, Varaždin, 1990
- ^ Carmichael 2012, p. 97.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 265.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, p. 37.
- ^ McCormick 2008.
- ^ Kenrick 2006, p. 92.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, p. 123.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 167.
- ^ Kallis 2008, pp. 130ā132.
- ^ Newman 2017.
- ^ Kallis 2008, p. 130.
- ^ Newman 2014.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 310, 314.
- ^ Ognyanova 2000, p. 3.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 7.
- ^ Kallis 2008, pp. 130ā131.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, p. 124.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, pp. 56ā60.
- ^ Bartulin 2013, pp. 52ā53.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 118.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 39, 592.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 591.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 6.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 300.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 586.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 404.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 150, 300.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 573, 588-590.
- ^ "UstaÅ”a". EncyclopƦdia Britannica. Retrieved 7 May 2020.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 590.
- ^ Rogel 2004, p. 8.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 150.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, pp. 52ā53.
- ^ Levy 2009.
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. 208.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 402ā404.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 403.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 16.
- ^ PavasoviÄ TroÅ”t 2018.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 32.
- ^ Suppan 2014, p. 592.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 301.
- ^ Kallis 2008, pp. 130, Yeomans 2015, p. 263, Suppan 2014, p. 591, Levy 2009, Domenico & Hanley 2006, p. 435, Adeli 2009, p. 9
- ^ Kallis 2008, p. 134.
- ^ Payne 2006.
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. ?.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 272.
- ^ Kallis 2008, p. 239.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 466.
- ^ "Deciphering the Balkan Enigma: Using History to Inform Policy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 54.
- ^ Jones, Adam & Nicholas A. Robins. (2009), Genocides by The Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide In Theory and Practice, p. 106, Indiana University Press; ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6
- ^ Jacobs 2009, p. 158-159.
- ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 190.
- ^ Shepherd 2012, p. 78.
- ^ Israeli 2013, p. 45.
- ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 134.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2010, p. 148.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2010, pp. 148ā149, 157.
- ^ Suppan 2014, pp. 32, 1065.
- ^ Goldstein 1999, p. 133.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 425.
- ^ Ognyanova 2000, p. 22.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 17.
- ^ Fischer 2007, pp. 207ā208, 210, 226.
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. 212.
- ^ Phayer 2000, p. 31.
- ^ Barbier 2017, p. 169.
- ^ Bloxham & Gerwarth 2011, p. 111.
- ^ McCormick 2014, p. 72.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 132.
- ^ Israeli 2013, p. 51.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 312.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 61.
- ^ Fischer 2007, p. 228.
- ^ Byford 2020, p. 10.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. 2.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 69.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 726.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 21, Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 3, Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 132.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 70.
- ^ Levy 2011, pp. 70ā71.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 71.
- ^ Weiss Wendt 2010, p. 147.
- ^ Lituchy 2006, p. 117.
- ^ BulajiÄ 2002, p. 231.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 72.
- ^ Schindley & Makara 2005, p. 149.
- ^ Jacobs 2009, p. 160.
- ^ Byford 2014.
- ^ Lituchy 2006, p. 220.
- ^ "The Extradition of Nazi Criminals: Ryan, Artukovic, and Demjanjuk". Simon Wiesenthal Center. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ Schindley & Makara 2005, p. 42, 393.
- ^ "Survivor Testimonies" (PDF). Kingsborough Community College. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ BulajiÄ 2002, p. 7.
- ^ DuliÄ 2006.
- ^ Milekic, Sven (6 October 2014). "WWII Children's Concentration Camp Remembered in Croatia". Balkan Insight. Balkan Investigative Reporting Network (BIRN). Retrieved 10 May 2020.
- ^ KolanoviÄ, Josip, ed. (2003). Dnevnik Diane BudisavljeviÄ 1941ā1945. Zagreb: Croatian State Archives and Public Institution Jasenovac Memorial Area. pp. 284ā85. ISBN 978-9-536-00562-8.
- ^ LomoviÄ, BoÅ”ko (2014). Die Heldin aus Innsbruck ā Diana Obexer BudisavljeviÄ. Belgrade: Svet knjige. p. 28. ISBN 978-86-7396-487-4. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
- ^ KisiÄ KolanoviÄ 2001, p. 286.
- ^ Biondich, Mark (2011). The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence Since 1878. Oxford University Press. pp. 136ā137. ISBN 978-0-19929-905-8.
- ^ McCormick 2014, p. 80.
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 104.
- ^ Yeomans 2012, p. vii.
- ^ GoƱi, Uki. The real Odessa: Smuggling the Nazis to PerĆ³n's Argentina; Granta, 2002, p. 202. ISBN 9781862075818
- ^ Byford 2020, p. 10-11.
- ^ King 2012.
- ^ Cornwell, John (2000). Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII. Penguin. pp. 251ā252. ISBN 978-0-14029-627-3.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, pp. 228.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, pp. 132ā136.
- ^ Scotti, Giacomo (1976). Ustascia tra il fascio e la svastica: storia e crimini del movimento ustascia (in Italian). Incontri. p. 111.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, p. 79.
- ^ BulajiÄ 1988ā1989, p. 254.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, p. 186.
- ^ BulajiÄ 1988ā1989, p. 564.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, pp. 186ā187.
- ^ Goldstein 2013, p. 127.
- ^ Goldstein 2013, p. 128.
- ^ Goldstein 2013, p. 129.
- ^ Singleton, Fred (1985). A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples. Cambridge University Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-52127-485-2.
- ^ Locke, Hubert G.; Littell, Marcia Sachs (1996). Holocaust and Church Struggle: Religion, Power, and the Politics of Resistance. University Press of America. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-76180-375-1.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, p. 286.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, p. 304.
- ^ Zatezalo 1989, p. 180.
- ^ Perrone 2017.
- ^ Zatezalo 2005, p. 126.
- ^ Å kiljan 2010.
- ^ Korb 2010b.
- ^ Greif 2018, p. 437.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 75-76.
- ^ CvetkoviÄ 2009, pp. 124ā128.
- ^ BariÄ 2019.
- ^ Schindley & Makara 2005, p. 362.
- ^ Bergholz 2012, pp. 76ā77.
- ^ Bergholz 2012, p. 76.
- ^ Goldstein 2013, p. 120.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 65.
- ^ Dulic, Tomislav (22 November 2011). "Gacko massacre, June 1941". SciencesPo.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 66.
- ^ Bergholz, Max (2016). Violence as a Generative Force: Identity, Nationalism, and Memory in a Balkan Community. Cornell University Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-501-70643-1.
- ^ BulajiÄ 1992b, p. 56.
- ^ BulajiÄ 1988ā1989, p. 683.
- ^ Greer & Moberg 2001, p. 142.
- ^ Hoare 2006, pp. 202ā203.
- ^ Yeomans 2011, p. 194.
- ^ Sokol 2014.
- ^ "Prime Minister ViÅ”koviÄ attends the commemorating ceremony in memory of the Serbs killed in Stari Brod and MiloÅ”eviÄi in 1942". Republic of Srpska Government. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- ^ BaliÄ 2009.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Å kiljan 2012.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 394.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2010, p. 149.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2010, p. 157.
- ^ Weiss-Wendt 2010, p. 150.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 178.
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 431.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 119.
- ^ Paris 1961, p. 100.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 398.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 126.
- ^ Yeomans 2015, pp. 178ā179.
- ^ McCormick 2014, p. 81.
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 430.
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 430, Rivelli 1999, p. 171
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 431, Dakina 1994, p. 209, SimiÄ 1958, p. 139
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 64.
- ^ Djilas 1991, p. 211.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 63.
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 431, ÄuriÄ 1991, p. 127, Djilas 1991, p. 211, Paris 1988, p. 197
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 542.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 529.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, vol 1, p. 328.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 531.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 537.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 565.
- ^ Lemkin 2008, p. 617.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 546.
- ^ Burgess, Michael (2005). The Eastern Orthodox Churches: Concise Histories with Chronological Checklists of Their Primates. McFarland. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-78642-145-9.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 547.
- ^ Velikonja 2003, p. 170.
- ^ BeÄiroviÄ, Denis (2010). "KomunistiÄka vlast i Srpska Pravoslavna Crkva u Bosni i Hercegovini (1945-1955) - Pritisci, napadi, hapÅ”enja i suÄenja". Tokovi Istorije (3): 78.
- ^ Š. Š. ŠØŠŗŠ°ŃŠ¾Š²ŃŠŗŠøŠ¹ "Š ŠøŃŃŠ¾ŃŠøŠø ŠŃŠ°Š²Š¾ŃŠ»Š°Š²Š½Š¾Š¹ Š¦ŠµŃŠŗŠ²Šø Š² Š„Š¾ŃŠ²Š°ŃŠøŠø (ŠŗŠ¾Š¼Š¼ŠµŠ½ŃŠ°ŃŠøŠ¹ Š² ŃŠ²ŠµŃŠµ Š²ŠµŃŃ)". Accessed 9 October 2021
- ^ Biondich 2006.
- ^ Goldstein 2001, pp. 559.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 566.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 563ā564.
- ^ Biondich 2007a, pp. 42ā43.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 555.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 564.
- ^ VukoviÄ 2004, p. 432.
- ^ Goldstein 2001, pp. 559, 578.
- ^ "OŔtre reakcije Srbije: Rehabilitacija ustaŔke NDH". Al Jazeera Balkans. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ "Jasenovac". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 736ā737.
- ^ KoÄoviÄ 2005, p. XVII.
- ^ KoÄoviÄ 2005, p. 113.
- ^ ŽerjaviÄ 1993, p. 10.
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 719.
- ^ Jelavich, Barbara (1983). History of the Balkans: Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-52127-459-3.
- ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (1992). Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962-1991 (Second ed.). Indiana University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-25334-794-7.
PaveliÄ and his UstaÅ”e henchmen alone were responsible for the liquidation of some 350,000 Serbs.
- ^ Ramet 2007, p. 4.
- ^ Hoare, Marko Attila (2014). The Bosnian Muslims in the Second World War. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19936-531-9.
..the Ustasha embarked on a policy of genocide which, in conjunction with the Nazi Holocaust with which it overlapped, claimed the lives of at least 30,000 Jews, a similar number of Gypsies and perhaps nearly 300,000 Serbs.
- ^ Payne 2006, pp. 18ā23.
- ^ RapaiÄ 1999, KrestiÄ 1998, SANU 1995, Kurdulija 1993, BulajiÄ 1992, KljakiÄ 1991
- ^ McCormick 2014, McCormick 2008, Yeomans 2012, p. 5, Levy 2011, Lemkin 2008, pp. 259ā264, Mojzes 2008, p. 154, Rivelli 1999, Paris 1961
- ^ Samuel Totten; William S. Parsons (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. p. 422. ISBN 978-1-135-94558-9.
The Independent State of Croatia willingly cooperated with the Nazi "Final Solution" against Jews and Gypsies, but went beyond it, launching a campaign of genocide against Serbs in "greater Croatia." The Ustasha, like the Nazis whom they emulated, established concentration camps and death camps.
- ^ Michael Lees (1992). The Serbian Genocide 1941ā1945. Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Western America.
- ^ John Pollard (30 October 2014). The Papacy in the Age of Totalitarianism, 1914ā1958. OUP Oxford. pp. 407ā. ISBN 978-0-19-102658-4.
- ^ KasapoviÄ 2018.
- ^ "Ustasa" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
- ^ "Croatian President Mesic Apologizes for Croatian Crimes Against the Jews during the Holocaust". Yad Vashem.
- ^ "Wiesenthal Center Condemns Whitewash of Ustasha Crimes by MEP Ruža TomaÅ”iÄ". Simon Wiesenthal Center.
- ^ "MesiÄ: Jasenovac je bio popriÅ”te genocida, holokausta i ratnih zloÄina". Index.hr.
- ^ "Hrvatska odala poŔtu žrtvama Jasenovca". balkaninsight.com.
- ^ "Bio sam razoÄaran Å”to VuÄiÄ ne prihvata sudske presude". N1. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ^ "Hrvatska nijeÄe genocid poÄinjen u vreme NDH ā Željko KomÅ”iÄ pred dužnosnikom UN-a Hrvatsku usporedio s Republikom Srpskom". jutarnji.hr]. 28 September 2019.
- ^ "For the glory and honour of the New Martyrs of Jasenovac". Serbian Orthodox Church. Archived from the original on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
- ^ Mojzes 2011, p. 47.
- ^ BulajiÄ 2002, p. 67.
- ^ Odak & BenÄiÄ 2016, p. 67.
- ^ BĆ¼rgschwentner, Egger & Barth-Scalmani 2014, p. 455.
- ^ Trbovich 2008, p. 139.
- ^ Biondich 2005.
- ^ Kataria 2015, MirkoviÄ 2000, KrestiÄ 1998, Dedijer 1992
- ^ MARTINA GRAHEK RAVANÄIÄ, IzruÄenja i sudbine zarobljenika smjeÅ”tenih u savezniÄkim logorima u svibnju 1945, Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb, Republika Hrvatska.
- ^ Nada KisiÄ KolanoviÄ. "PolitiÄki procesi u Hrvatskoj neposredno nakon Drugoga svjetskoga rata", 1945 - Razdjelnica hrvatske povijesti, Zbornik radova sa znanstvenog skupa u Hrvatskom institutu za povijest u Zagrebu 1-6, svibnja 2006, pp. 75-97, see pg. 85; ISBN 978-1-59017-673-3.
- ^ Ramet 2007, p. 96.
- ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, pp. 342ā348.
- ^ Fine, John (2007). "Part 2: Strongmen can be Beneficial: the Exceptional Case of Josip Broz Tito". In Fischer, Bernd JĆ¼rgen (ed.). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe. Purdue University Press. pp. 284ā285. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2.
- ^ Deutschland Military Tribunal 1950, pp. 1302ā03.
- ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide" (PDF). United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". United Nations Treaty Series. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ Abtahi & Boas 2005, p. 267.
- ^ RavliÄ 1997, p. 12.
- ^ Stover, Peskin & Koenig 2016, p. 135.
- ^ Paul Hockenos (2003). Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism & the Balkan Wars. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4158-5.
- ^ Drago Hedl (10 November 2005). "Croatia's Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many". BCR Issue 73. IWPR. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- ^ Sindbaek 2012, p. 178-179.
- ^ Sadkovich 2010.
- ^ Ciment & Hill 2012, p. 492.
- ^ Horvitz & Catherwood 2014, pp. 432ā433.
- ^ Parenti 2002, pp. 44ā45.
- ^ "Franjo Tudjman". The Guardian. 13 December 1999. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
- ^ "Dokle Äe se u Jasenovac u tri kolone?". N1. 23 April 2017. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
- ^ "Jasenovac Camp Victims Commemorated Separately Again". balkaninsight.com. 12 April 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
- ^ "Jewish and Serbian minorities boycott official "Croatian Auschwitz" commemoration". neweurope.eu. 28 March 2017. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
- ^ "Former top Croat officials join boycott of Jasenovac event". B92. 12 April 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
- ^ Ramet 2007b, p. 273.
- ^ Walasek 2016, p. 84.
- ^ Radonic 2013.
- ^ Walasek 2016, p. 83-84.
- ^ "Israel's Shimon Peres visits 'Croatian Auschwitz'". EJ Press. 25 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ "Israel's Peres visits Croatian Auschwitsz". France24. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
- ^ "Obeležen Dan seÄanja na žrtve Holokausta, genocida i drugih žrtava faÅ”izma u Drugom svetskom ratu". Ministry of Labour, Employment, Veteran and Social Policy (Serbia). Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ "Minister honors Croatian WW2 death camp victims". B92. 30 June 2014. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ "United Nations Department of Public Information - 2018 Holocaust Remembrance Calendar of Events". United Nations. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ "Exhibition about Croat WW2 death camp to open at UN". B92. 23 January 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
- ^ "VuÄiÄ u Sremskoj Mitrovici: Ne zaboravljamo genocid, ali promoviÅ”emo mir". N1. Archived from the original on 17 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ "Prvi put obilježeno stradanje djece". nezavisne.com. Nezavisne novine. 26 August 2010. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
- ^ "KraŔka jama usred Novog Sada". Vreme. 10 October 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ "Kvadratura kruga: Kako je nastala pesma ÄurÄevdan". Radio Television of Serbia. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ "Wiesenthal Center Expresses Outrage At Massive Outburst of Nostalgia for Croatian Fascism at Zagreb Rock Concert; Urges President Mesic to Take Immediate Action". Simon Wiesenthal Center. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ "Wiesenthal Center Slams Inclusion Of Fascist Singer Thompson In Croatian Football Team Celebration/ Reception In Zagreb". Simon Wiesenthal Center. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
- ^ C. Falconi, The Silence of Pius XII, London (1970), p. 3308
- ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 723.
- ^ ŽerjaviÄ 1993, p. 19.
- ^ Baker 2015, p. 32.
- ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 280.
- ^ "Croatia" (PDF). Shoah Resource Center ā Yad Vashem.
- ^ UngvƔry 2011, p. 75.
- ^ Ramet 2006, p. 138.
- ^ Milivojevich, Dionisije (1945). The Persecution of the Serbian Orthodox Church in Yugoslavia. Serbian Orthodox Monastery of St. Sava. p. 23.
- ^ AntonijeviÄ 2003, p. 28.
Sources
Books
- Avramov, Smilja (1995). Genocide in Yugoslavia. BIGZ. ISBN 9788613007982.
- Adriano, Pino; Cingolani, Giorgio (2018). Nationalism and Terror: Ante PaveliÄ and Ustasha Terrorism from Fascism to the Cold War. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9-63386-206-3.
- Baker, Catherine (2015). The Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 9781137398994.
- Bartulin, Nevenko (2013). The Racial Idea in the Independent State of Croatia: Origins and Theory. BRILL. ISBN 9789004262829.
- BatakoviÄ, DuÅ”an T., ed. (2005). Histoire du peuple serbe [History of the Serbian People] (in French). Lausanne: LāAge dāHomme.
- Bellamy, Alex J. (2013). The Formation of Croatian National Identity: A Centuries-Old Dream?. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9781847795731.
- Biondich, Mark (2007a). "Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia, 1941ā45". The Independent State of Croatia 1941ā45. Routledge. pp. 31ā59.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (2002). Jasenovac: The JewishāSerbian Holocaust (the role of the Vatican) in Nazi-Ustasha Croatia (1941ā1945). Belgrade: Fund for Genocide Research, StruÄna knjiga.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1994a). Tudjman's "Jasenovac Myth": Genocide against Serbs, Jews and Gypsies. Belgrade: StruÄna knjiga.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1994b). The Role of the Vatican in the break-up of the Yugoslav State: The Mission of the Vatican in the Independent State of Croatia. Ustashi Crimes of Genocide. Belgrade: StruÄna knjiga.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1992). Misija Vatikana u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj: "Politika Stepinac" razbijanja jugoslovenske države i pokatoliÄavanja pravoslavnih Srba po cijenu genocida : stvaranje Civitas DeiāAntemurale Christianitatis. Politika.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1992b). Never Again: Ustashi Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) from 1941-1945. University of Michigan.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1992c). Tudjman's "Jasenovac Myth": Ustasha Crimes of Genocide. Belgrade: The Ministry of information of the Republic of Serbia.
- BulajiÄ, Milan (1988ā1989). UstaÅ”ki zloÄini genocida i suÄenje Andriji ArtukoviÄu 1986. godine. Vol. IāIV. Rad.
- Batchelor, Dahn A. (2012). Whistling in the Face of Robbers: The Life and Times of Dahn A. Batchelor. iUniverse. ISBN 9781462028153.
- Byford, Jovan (2020). Picturing Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia: Atrocity Images and the Contested Memory of the Second World War in the Balkans. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-35001-597-5.
- Christia, Fotini (2012). Alliance Formation in Civil Wars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139851756.
- Dakina, Gojo Riste (1994). Genocide Over the Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia: Be Catholic Or Die. Institute of Contemporary History.
- Dedijer, Vladimir (1992). The Yugoslav Auschwitz and the Vatican: The Croatian Massacre of the Serbs During World War II. Amherst: Prometheus Books. ISBN 9780879757526.
- Dedijer, Vladimir (1987). Vatikan i Jasenovac: dokumenti. Rad.
- Djilas, Aleksa (1991). The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 1919ā1953. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674166981.
- DuliÄ, Tomislav (2005). Utopias of Nation: Local Mass Killing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1941ā42. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University Library. ISBN 978-9-1554-6302-1.
- ÄuriÄ, Veljko (1991). ŠŃŠµŠŗŃŃŃŠ°Š²Š°ŃŠµ Š”ŃŠ±Š° Ń ŠŠµŠ·Š°Š²ŠøŃŠ½Š¾Ń ŠŃŠ¶Š°Š²Šø Š„ŃŠ²Š°ŃŃŠŗŠ¾Ń: ŠŃŠøŠ»Š¾Š·Šø Š·Š° ŠøŃŃŠ¾ŃŠøŃŃ Š²ŠµŃŃŠŗŠ¾Š³ Š³ŠµŠ½Š¾ŃŠøŠ“Š°. ŠŠµŠ¾Š³ŃŠ°Š“: ŠŠ»ŃŠ°.
- Fischer, Bernd J. (2007). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South-Eastern Europe. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2.
- GliÅ”iÄ, Venceslav (1970). Teror i zloÄini nacistiÄke NemaÄke u Srbiji 1941-1944. Belgrade: Rad.
- Goldstein, Ivo (1999). Croatia: A History. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 9781850655251.
- Goldstein, Ivo (2001). Holokaust u Zagrebu. Novi liber. ISBN 9781850655251.
- Goldstein, Slavko (2013). 1941: The Year That Keeps Returning. New York Review of Books. ISBN 9781590177006.
- Hoptner, Jacob B. (1962). Yugoslavia in Crisis, 1934-1941.
- Hory, Ladislaus; Broszat, Martin (1964). Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat 1941ā1945. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt.
- JanjetoviÄ, Zoran (2008). "Die Vertreibungen auf dem Territorium des ehemaligen Jogoslawien" [The Expulsions from the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia]. In Bingen, Dieter; Borodziej, WÅodzimierz; Troebst, Stefan (eds.). Vertreibungen europƤisch erinnern? [Do You Remember the European Expulsions?] (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 153ā157. ISBN 9780231700504.
- JevtiÄ, Atanasije (1990). VelikomuÄeniÄki Jasenovac: ustaÅ”ka tvornica smrti : dokumenti i svedoÄenja. Glas crkve.
- KljakiÄ, Slobodan (1991). A Conspiracy of Silence: Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia and Concentration Camp Jasenovac. Ministry of Information of the Republic of Serbia.
- KisiÄ KolanoviÄ, Nada (2001). NDH i Italija: politiÄke veze i diplomatski odnosi [The NDH and Italy: Political Connections and Diplomatic Relations] (in Croatian). Naklada Ljevak. ISBN 9789531784603.
- KoÄoviÄ, Bogoljub (2005). Sahrana jednog mita: žrtve Drugog svetskog rata u Jugoslaviji [Burial of a Myth: World War II Victims in Yugoslavia]. Beograd: Otkrovenje. ISBN 9788683353392.
- Korb, Alexander (2010a). "A Multipronged Attack: UstaÅ”a Persecution of Serbs, Jews, and Roma in Wartime Croatia". Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 145ā163.
- Korb, Alexander (2010b). "Integrated Warfare? The Germans and the UstaÅ”a Massacres: Syrmia 1942". In Shepherd, Ben (ed.). War in a Twilight World: Partisan and Anti-Partisan Warfare in Eastern Europe, 1939ā1945. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-29048-8.
- Greif, Gideon (2018). Jasenovac - Auschwitz of the Balkans. Knjiga komerc. ISBN 9789655727272.
- KrestiÄ, Vasilije (1998). Through genocide to a greater Croatia. BIGZ.
- KrestiÄ, Vasilije (2009). Dosije o genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH. Prometej.
- Kurdulija, Strahinja (1993). Atlas of the Ustasha genocide of the Serbs 1941ā1945. Foundation for truth of Serbs. ISBN 9788679410023.
- Lemkin, Raphael (2008). Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 9781584779018.
- Levy, Michele Frucht (2011). "'The Last Bullet for the Last Serb': The UstaÅ”a Genocide against Serbs: 1941ā1945". In Crowe, David (ed.). Crimes of State Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses. Routledge. pp. 54ā84.
- Lituchy, Barry M., ed. (2006). Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia: Analyses and Survivor Testimonies. New York: Jasenovac Research Institute.
- McCormick, Robert B. (2014). Croatia Under Ante PaveliÄ: America, the UstaÅ”e and Croatian Genocide. London-New York: I.B. Tauris.
- MirkoviÄ, Jovan (2014). ŠŠ»Š¾ŃŠøŠ½Šø Š½Š°Š“ Š”ŃŠ±ŠøŠ¼Š° Ń ŠŠµŠ·Š°Š²ŠøŃŠ½Š¾Ń ŠŃŠ¶Š°Š²Šø Š„ŃŠ²Š°ŃŃŠŗŠ¾Ń ā ŃŠ¾ŃŠ¾Š¼Š¾Š½Š¾Š³ŃŠ°ŃŠøŃŠ° [Crimes against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia]. Belgrade: Svet knjige. ISBN 9788673964652. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
- MitroviÄ, Jeremija D. (1991). ŠŠ°ŃŠ²ŠµŃŠø Š·Š»Š¾ŃŠøŠ½Šø ŃŠ°Š“Š°ŃŃŠøŃŠµ: ŠŠ°ŃŃŠµ Šø ŃŃŃŠ°Š“Š°ŃŠµ ŃŃŠæŃŠŗŠ¾Š³ Š½Š°ŃŠ¾Š“Š° Ń ŠŠµŠ·Š°Š²ŠøŃŠ½Š¾Ń Š“ŃŠ¶Š°Š²Šø Š„ŃŠ²Š°ŃŃŠŗŠ¾Ń Š¾Š“ 1941ā1945. ŠŠµŃŃŠµ Š½Š¾Š²ŠøŠ½Šµ. ISBN 9788636704868.
- Mojzes, Paul (2008). "The Genocidal Twentieth Century in the Balkans". In Jacobs, Steven L. (ed.). Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Lanham: Lexington Books. pp. 151ā182.
- Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the 20th Century. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442206632.
- Novak, Viktor (2011a). Magnum Crimen: Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia. Vol. 1. Jagodina: Gambit. ISBN 9788676240494.
- Novak, Viktor (2011b). Magnum Crimen: Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia. Vol. 2. Jagodina: Gambit. ISBN 9788676240494.
- Paris, Edmond (1961). Genocide in Satellite Croatia, 1941ā1945: A Record of Racial and Religious Persecutions and Massacres. Chicago: American Institute for Balkan Affairs.
- Paris, Edmond (1988). Convertā or die!: Catholic persecution in Yugoslavia during World War II. Chick Publications.
- Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2008). Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231700504.
- Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918ā2005. New York: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253346568.
- Ramet, Sabrina P.; Listhaug, Ola, eds. (2011). Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 9780230347816.
- Ramet, Sabrina (2007). The Independent State of Croatia 1941-45. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415440554.
- Ramet, Sabrina (2007b). Democratic Transition in Croatia: Value Transformation, Education, and Media. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9781603444521.
- KolstĆø, PĆ„l (2011). "The Serbian-Croatian Controversy over Jasenovac". Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two. pp. 225ā246.
- Phayer, Michael (2000). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930ā1965. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253337252.
- UngvƔry, KrisztiƔn (2011). Vojvodina under Hungarian rule.
- RapaiÄ, Mirko (1999). LiÄka tragedija: hrvatski zloÄini genocida nad srpskim narodom 1941. do 1945. Srpska reÄ. ISBN 9788649100343.
- Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (1998). Le gĆ©nocide occultĆ©: Ćtat IndĆ©pendant de Croatie 1941ā1945 [Hidden Genocide: The Independent State of Croatia 1941ā1945] (in French). Lausanne: L'age d'Homme.
- Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (1999). L'arcivescovo del genocidio: Monsignor Stepinac, il Vaticano e la dittatura ustascia in Croazia, 1941ā1945 [The Archbishop of Genocide: Monsignor Stepinac, the Vatican and the UstaÅ”e dictatorship in Croatia, 1941ā1945] (in Italian). Milano: Kaos.
- Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (2002). "Dio ĆØ con noi!": La Chiesa di Pio XII complice del nazifascismo ["God is with us!": The Church of Pius XII accomplice to Nazi Fascism] (in Italian). Milano: Kaos.
- Roberts, Walter R. (1973). Tito, MihailoviÄ and the Allies 1941ā1945. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813507408.
- Rogel, Carole (2004). The Breakup of Yugoslavia and Its Aftermath. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313323-57-7.
- Sedlar, Jean W. (2007). The Axis Empire in Southeast Europe, 1939ā1945. BookLocker.com. ISBN 9781601452979.
- SimiÄ, Sima (1958). ŠŃŠµŠŗŃŃŃŠ°Š²Š°ŃŠµ Š”ŃŠ±Š° Š·Š° Š²ŃŠµŠ¼Šµ ŠŃŃŠ³Š¾Š³ ŃŠ²ŠµŃŃŠŗŠ¾Š³ ŃŠ°ŃŠ°. Š¢ŠøŃŠ¾Š³ŃŠ°Š“: ŠŃŠ°ŃŠøŃŠŗŠø Š·Š°Š²Š¾Š“.
- Å kiljan, Filip (2014). Organizirana prisilna iseljavanja Srba iz NDH (PDF). Zagreb: Srpsko narodno vijeÄe. ISBN 9789537442132. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
- Skoko, Savo (1991). Pokolji hercegovaÄkih Srba '41. Belgrade: StruÄna knjiga.
- StaniÅ”iÄ, Mihailo (1999). Slom, genocid, odmazda. Službeni list SRJ.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941ā1945: The Chetniks. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941ā1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1.
- Jonassohn, Kurt; Bjƶrnson, Karin (1998). Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-2445-3.
- Carmichael, Cathie; Maguire, Richard C. (2015). The Routledge History of Genocide. The Routledge. ISBN 9781317514848.
- Kallis, Aristotle (2008). Genocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe. Routledge. ISBN 9781134300341.
- Suppan, Arnold (2014). Hitler - BeneÅ” - Tito: Konflikt, Krieg und Vƶlkermord in Ostmittel- und SĆ¼dosteuropa. Austrian Academy of Sciences.
- Ognyanova, Irina (2000). "Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia (1941ā1945)". In Rogers, Dorothy; Joshua, Wheeler; ZavackĆ”, MarĆna; Casebier, Shawna (eds.). Topics in Feminism, History and Philosophy, IWM Junior Visiting Fellows Conferences, Vol. 6. Vienna, Austria: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Kenrick, Donald (2006). The Final Chapter. University of Hertfordshire Press. ISBN 9781902806495.
- Barbier, Mary Kathryn (2017). Spies, Lies, and Citizenship: The Hunt for Nazi Criminals. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781612349718.
- Bloxham, Donald; Gerwarth, Robert (2011). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139501293.
- Israeli, Raphael (2013). The Death Camps of Croatia: Visions and Revisions, 1941-1945 Europe. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9781412849753.
- Domenico, Roy Palmer; Hanley, Mark (2006). Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics: L-Z. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313338908.
- Adeli, Lisa Marie (2009). Resistance to the Persecution of Ethnic Minorities in Croatia and Bosnia During World War II. Greenwood Publishing Group Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 9780773447455.
- Shepherd, Ben (2012). Terror in the Balkans. Harvard University Press.
- Weiss-Wendt, Anton (2010). Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443824491.
- Touval, Saadia (2001). Mediation in the Yugoslav Wars: The Critical Years, 1990-95. Springer. ISBN 9780230288669.
- TrencsĆ©nyi, BalĆ”zs; Kopecek, Michal (2007). National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements: Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770ā1945, volume II. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 9786155211249.
- Yeomans, Rory (2011). ""For us, beloved commander, you will never die!" Mourning Jure FrancetiÄ, Ustasha Death Squad Leader". In Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn (eds.). In the Shadow of Hitler: Personalities of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-697-2.
- Yeomans, Rory (2012). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941ā1945. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822977933.
- Yeomans, Rory (2015). The Utopia of Terror: Life and Death in Wartime Croatia. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 9781580465458.
- ŽerjaviÄ, Vladimir (1993). Yugoslavia: Manipulations with the Number of Second World War Victims. Zagreb, Croatia: Croatian Information Centre. ISBN 0-919817-32-7. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
- VajagiÄ, Predrag M. (2013). Istorijska analiza osnivanja i funkcionisanja Dunavske banovine u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji (PDF). Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet Univerziteta u Novom Sadu, odsek za istoriju. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- Jonassohn, Kurt (1998). Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-2445-3. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
- Bellamy, Alex J. (2003). The Formation of Croatian National Identity: A Centuries-old Dream. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719065026.
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2007). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. ISBN 9781134583287.
- Carmichael, Cathie (2012). Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-47953-5. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
- Weiss Wendt, Anton (2010). Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443824491.
- Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks 1941ā1943. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-726380-8.
- Greer, Joanne Marie; Moberg, David O. (2001). Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion.v.10. Brill. ISBN 9780762304837.
- Schindley, Wanda; Makara, Petar (2005). Jasenovac: proceedings of the First International Conference and Exhibit on the Jasenovac Concentration Camps, October 29-31, 1997, Kingsborough Community College of the City University of New York. Dallas Pub. ISBN 9780912011646.
- Jacobs, Steven L. (2009). Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739135891.
- Stover, Eric; Peskin, Victor; Koenig, Alexa (2016). Hiding in Plain Sight: The Pursuit of War Criminals from Nuremberg to the War on Terror. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520278059.
- BĆ¼rgschwentner, Joachim; Egger, Matthias; Barth-Scalmani, Gunda (2014). Other Fronts, Other Wars?: First World War Studies on the Eve of the Centennial. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-24365-1.
- Trbovich, Ana S. (2008). A Legal Geography of Yugoslavia's Disintegration. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199715473.
- CvetkoviÄ, Dragan (2009). Bosna i Hercegovina: numeriÄko odreÄenje ljudskih gubitaka u Drugom svetskom ratu. Belgrade. ISBN 9788686831019.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - BariÄ, Nikola (2019). Historiae patriaeque cultor. Slavonski Brod. ISBN 978-953-8102-23-3.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Velikonja, Mitja (2003). Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9781585442263.
- Zatezalo, Äuro (2005). "Radio sam svoj seljaÄki i kovaÄki posao": svjedoÄanstva genocida. Zagreb: SKD Prosvijeta. ISBN 953-6627-79-5.
- Zatezalo, Äuro (1989). Kotar GospiÄ i Kotar PeruÅ”iÄ u narodnooslobodilaÄkom ratu, 1941-1945. Karlovac: Historijski arhiv u Karlovcu. ISBN 978-8680783048.
- Abtahi, Hirad; Boas, Gideon (2005). The Dynamics of International Criminal Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Richard May. Leiden, The Netherlands: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-1780-4.
- RavliÄ, Slaven (1997). "Andrija ArtukoviÄ". In Dizdar, Zdenko; GrÄiÄ, Marko; RavliÄ, Slaven; StupariÄ, Darko (eds.). Tko je tko u NDH. Zabreg, Croatia: Minerva. pp. 11ā12. ISBN 978-953-6377-03-9.
- Ciment, James; Hill, Kenneth (2012). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Routledge. ISBN 9781136596216.
- Sindbaek, Tia (2012). Usable History?: Representations of Yugoslavia's Difficult Past from 1945 to 2002. ISD LLC. ISBN 978-8-77124-107-5.
- Horvitz, Leslie Alan; Catherwood, Christopher (2014). Encyclopedia of War Crimes and Genocide. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438110295.
- Parenti, Michael (2002). To Kill a Nation: The Attack on Yugoslavia. Verso Books. ISBN 9781859843666.
- Walasek, Helen (2016). Bosnia and the Destruction of Cultural Heritage. Routledge. ISBN 9781317172994.
Journals
- AntonijeviÄ, Nenad (2003). "Stradanje srpskog i crnogorskog civilnog stanovniÅ”tva na Kosovu i Metohiji 1941. godine". Dijalog PovjesniÄara-istoriÄara. 8: 355ā369.
- AntonijeviÄ, Nenad M. (2016). "Š Š°ŃŠ½Šø Š·Š»Š¾ŃŠøŠ½Šø Š½Š° ŠŠ¾ŃŠ¾Š²Ń Šø ŠŠµŃŠ¾Ń ŠøŃŠø: 1941ā1945. Š³Š¾Š“ŠøŠ½Šµ". Š£Š½ŠøŠ²ŠµŃŠ·ŠøŃŠµŃ Ń ŠŠµŠ¾Š³ŃŠ°Š“Ń, Š¤ŠøŠ»Š¾Š·Š¾ŃŃŠŗŠø ŃŠ°ŠŗŃŠ»ŃŠµŃ.
- Bartulin, Nevenko (October 2007). "Ideologija nacije i rase: ustaÅ”ki režim i politika prema Srbima u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj 1941ā1945" (PDF). Radovi (in Croatian). 39 (1): 209ā241. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- Bartulin, Nevenko (2008). "The Ideology of Nation and Race: The Croatian Ustasha Regime and its Policies toward the Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia 1941ā1945". Croatian Studies Review. 5: 75ā102.
- Biondich, Mark (2005). "Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia: Reflections on the UstaÅ”a Policy of Forced Religious Conversions, 1941ā1942". The Slavonic and East European Review. 83 (1): 71ā116. doi:10.1353/see.2005.0063. JSTOR 4214049. S2CID 151704526.
- Biondich, Mark (2006). "Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia, 1941ā45". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (4): 429ā457. doi:10.1080/14690760600963222. S2CID 143351253.
- Biondich, Mark (2007b). "Radical Catholicism and Fascism in Croatia, 1918ā1945". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8 (2): 383ā399. doi:10.1080/14690760701321346. S2CID 145148083.
- Boban, Ljubo (1993). "Kada je i kako nastala Država Slovenaca, Hrvata i Srba" [When and how did the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs come into existence (Summary)]. Journal of the Institute of Croatian History. 26 (1): 187ā198.
- Byford, Jovan (2007). "When I say "The Holocaust," I mean "Jasenovac": Remembrance of the Holocaust in contemporary Serbia". East European Jewish Affairs. 37 (1): 51ā74. doi:10.1080/13501670701197946. S2CID 161763723.
- CvetkoviÄ, Dragan (2011). "Holokaust u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj ā numeriÄko odreÄenje" [Holocaust in Independent State of Croatia]. Istorija 20. Veka: Äasopis Instituta za Savremenu Istoriju. 29 (1): 163ā182. doi:10.29362/ist20veka.2011.1.cve.163-182.
- Hehn, Paul N. (1971). "Serbia, Croatia and Germany 1941ā1945: Civil War and Revolution in the Balkans". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 13 (4): 344ā373. doi:10.1080/00085006.1971.11091249.
- Kataria, Shyamal (2015). "Serbian Ustashe Memory and Its Role in the Yugoslav Wars, 1991ā1995". Mediterranean Quarterly. 26 (2): 115ā127. doi:10.1215/10474552-2914550. S2CID 154634001.
- KrestiÄ, Vasilije (1986). "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH". Književne Novine. 15.
- Levy, Michele Frucht (2009). ""The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The UstaÅ”a Genocide against Serbs: 1941ā1945". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 807ā837. doi:10.1080/00905990903239174. S2CID 162231741.
- Lisac, A. L. (1956). "Deportacije Srba iz Hrvatske 1941". Historijski Zbornik. 9: 125ā145.
- McCormick, Rob (2008). "The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941ā1945". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (1): 75ā98. doi:10.1353/gsp.2011.0060. S2CID 145309437.
- Newman, John Paul (2017). "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918ā1941". Fascism. 6: 42ā74. doi:10.1163/22116257-00601003.
- Newman, John Paul (2014). "Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918" (PDF). First World War Studies. 5 (3): 319ā335. doi:10.1080/19475020.2014.1001519. S2CID 73611212.
- PavasoviÄ TroÅ”t, Tamara (2018). "Ruptures and continuities in nationhood narratives: reconstructing the nation through history textbooks in Serbia and Croatia". Nations and Nationalism. 24 (3): 716ā740. doi:10.1111/nana.12433. S2CID 242057219.
- DuliÄ, Tomislav (2006). "Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941ā1945: a case for comparative research". Journal of Genocide Research. 8: 255ā281. doi:10.1080/14623520600949981. S2CID 242057219.
- MirkoviÄ, D. (2000). "The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991-1995". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (3): 363ā373. doi:10.1080/713677614. S2CID 72467680.
- Å kiljan, F. (2007). "Stradanje Srba u Jasenovcu u Drugom svjetskom ratu". Pro Tempore: ÄÄasopis Studenata Povijesti. 4: 40ā46.
- Å kiljan, F. (2004). "Hate speech in Independent State of Croatia during WWII". Ljetopis Srpskog Kulturnog DruÅ”tva Prosvjeta. 9: 243ā.
- Å kiljan, Filip (2012). "Organizirano masovno prisilno iseljavanje srba iz Hrvatske 1941. Godine" [Organized Massive Forced Migration of Serbs from Croatia in 1941] (PDF). StanovniÅ”tvo = Population = Naselenie. 50 (2): 1ā34. doi:10.2298/STNV1202001S. ISSN 0038-982X.
- Å kiljan, Filip (2010). "Stradanje Srba, Židova i Roma u virovitiÄkom i slatinskom kraju tijekom 1941. i poÄetkom 1942. godine". Scrinia Slavonica. 10. Hrvatski institut za povijest - Podružnica za povijest Slavonije, Srijema i Baranje: 360ā362.
- StojanoviÄ, Aleksandar (2017). "A Beleaguered Church: The Serbian Orthodox Church in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) 1941ā1945". Balcanica (48): 269ā287. doi:10.2298/BALC1748269S.
- VukÄeviÄ, Slavko (1995). "Ratni zloÄini i genocid u Jugoslaviji od 1941. do 1945. godine" [War crimes and genocide in Yugoslavia from 1941 till 1945]. Vojno Delo. 47 (3): 192ā200.
- VukoviÄ, Slobodan V. (2004). "Uloga Vatikana u razbijanju Jugoslavije". SocioloÅ”ki Pregled. 38 (3): 423ā443. doi:10.5937/socpreg0403423V.
- Yeomans, Rory (2005). "Cults of Death and Fantasies of Annihilation: The Croatian Ustasha Movement in Power, 1941ā45". Central Europe. 3 (2): 121ā142. doi:10.1179/147909605x69383. S2CID 143062602.
- PavloviÄ, Marko (2012). Äaslav OciÄ (ed.). "Jugoslovenska kraljevina prva evropska regionalna država" (PDF). Zbornik Matice srpske za druÅ”tvene nauke. 141. Novi Sad: Matica srpska: 503ā521. ISSN 0352-5732. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- Byford, Jovan (2014). "Remembering Jasenovac: Survivor Testimonies and the Cultural Dimension of Bearing Witness" (PDF). Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 28 (1): 58ā84. doi:10.1093/hgs/dcu011. S2CID 145546608.
- Odak, Stipe; BenÄiÄ, Andriana (2016). "Jasenovac ā A Past That Does Not Pass: The Presence of Jasenovac in Croatian and Serbian Collective Memory of Conflict". East European Politics and Societies and Cultures. 30 (4): 805ā829. doi:10.1177/0888325416653657. S2CID 148091289.
- Sokol, Anida (2014). "War Monuments: Instruments of Nation-building in Bosnia and Herzegovina". Croatian Political Science Review. 51 (5): 105ā126.
- BaliÄ, Emily Greble (2009). "When Croatia Needes Serbs: Nationalism and Genocide in Sarajevo, 1941-1942". Slavic Review. 68 (1): 116ā138. doi:10.2307/20453271. JSTOR 20453271.
- Perrone, Fiorella (2017). "The Horror in the Balkans. Civilian Victims in the Second World War in the Former Yugoslavia". L'Osservatorio.
- KasapoviÄ, Mirjana (2018). "Genocid u NDH: Umanjivanje, banaliziranje i poricanje zloÄina". PolitiÄka Misao: Äasopis za Politologiju. 55 (1): 7ā33. doi:10.20901/pm.55.1.01.
- King, Charles (2012). "Can There Be a Political Science of the Holocaust?". Perspectives on Politics. 10 (2): 323ā341. doi:10.1017/S1537592712000692. S2CID 145464503.
- Payne, Stanley G. (2006). "The NDH State in Comparative Perspective". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (4): 409ā415. doi:10.1080/14690760600963198. S2CID 144782263.
- Sadkovich, James (2010). "Forging Consensus: How Franjo TuÄman Became an Authoritarian Nationalist". Review of Croatian History. 6 (1): 7ā35.
- Radonic, Ljiljana Radonic (2013). "Croatia's Politics of the Past during the TuÄman Era (1990ā1999)āOld Wine in New Bottles?". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 44: 234ā254. doi:10.1017/S0067237813000143. S2CID 145718988.
Other
- SANU (1995). Genocid nad Srbima u II svetskom ratu. Muzej žrtava genocida i Srpska književna zadruga.
- Gutman, Israel, ed. (1990). "Ustase". Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Vol. 4. Macmillan.
- LatinoviÄ, Goran (2006). "On Croatian history textbooks". Association of Descendants and Supporters of Victims of Complex of Death Camps NDH, GospiÄ-Jadovno-Pag 1941.
- Bergholz, Max (2012). "None of us Dared Say Anything: Mass Killing in a Bosnian Community during World War Two and the Postwar Culture of Silence" (PDF). University of Toronto.
- Deutschland Military Tribunal (1950). Trials of war criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law no. 10 : Nuernberg Oct. 1946 ā April 1949 Vol. 11 The High Command case. The Hostage case. Case 12. US v. von Leeb. Case 7. US v. List. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. OCLC 247746272.
External links
- "Genocide in Croatia 1941ā1945" (PDF). Serbian National Defense Council of Canada; Serbian National Defense Council of America. 1976. OCLC 26383552.
- Generalplan Ost
- Anti-Slavic sentiment
- 1941 establishments in Croatia
- 1945 disestablishments in Croatia
- Anti-Eastern Orthodoxy in Catholicism
- Anti-Eastern Orthodoxy
- Axis war crimes in Yugoslavia
- Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II
- Catholicisation
- Croatia in World War II
- Eastern OrthodoxāCatholic conflicts
- Ethnic cleansing in Europe
- History of Catholicism in Europe
- History of the Serbs of Croatia
- Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians
- Anti-Serbian sentiment
- Persecution of Serbs
- Serbia in World War II
- The Holocaust in Yugoslavia
- UstaŔe
- War crimes of the Independent State of Croatia
- Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia