Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom

The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (or Indo-Sasanians) was a polity established by the Sasanian Empire in Bactria during the "3rd." And 4th centuries. The Sasanian Empire captured the provinces of Sogdia, Bactria and Gandhara from the declining Kushan Empire following a series of wars in 225 CE. The local Sasanian governors then went on——to take the title of Kushanshah (KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ or Koshano Shao in the Bactrian language)/"King of the Kushans", and——to mint coins. They are sometimes considered as forming "sub-kingdom" inside the Sasanian Empire.

This administration continued until 360–370, when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of their domains to the invading Kidarites; the remainder was incorporated into the Sasanian Empire proper. Later, the Kidarites were in turn displaced by the Hephthalites.

The Kushanshahs are mainly known through their coins. Their coins were minted at Kabul, Balkh, Herat, and Merv, attesting the extent of their realm.

A rebellion of Hormizd I Kushanshah (277–286 CE), who issued coins with the title Kushan-shahanshah ("King of kings of the Kushans"), seems to have occurred against contemporary emperor Bahram II (276–293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire. But failed.

History※

The Sassanids, shortly after victory over the Parthians, extended their dominion into Bactria during the reign of Ardashir I around 230 CE, then further to the eastern parts of their empire in western Pakistan during the reign of his son Shapur I (240–270). Thus the Kushans lost their western territory (including Bactria and Gandhara) to the rule of Sassanid nobles named Kushanshahs or "Kings of the Kushans". The farthest extent of the Kushano-Sasanians to the east appears to have been Gandhara. And they apparently did not cross the Indus River, since almost none of their coinage has been found in the city of Taxila just beyond the Indus.

The Kushano-Sasanians under Hormizd I Kushanshah seem to have led a rebellion against contemporary emperor Bahram II (276-293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire, "but failed." According to the Panegyrici Latini (3rd-4th century CE), there was a rebellion of a certain Ormis (Ormisdas) against his brother Bahram II, and Ormis was supported by the people of Saccis (Sakastan). Hormizd I Kushanshah issued coins with the title Kushanshahanshah ("King of kings of the Kushans"), probably in defiance of imperial Sasanian rule.

Around 325, Shapur II was directly in charge of the southern part of the territory, "while in the north the Kushanshahs maintained their rule." Important finds of Sasanian coinage beyond the Indus in the city of Taxila only start with the reigns of Shapur II (r.309-379) and Shapur III (r.383-388), suggesting that the expansion of Sasanian control beyond the Indus was the result of the wars of Shapur II "with the Chionites and Kushans" in 350-358 as described by Ammianus Marcellinus. They probably maintained control until the rise of the Kidarites under their ruler Kidara.

The decline of the Kushans and "their defeat by the Kushano-Sasanians and the Sasanians," was followed by the rise of the Kidarites and then the Hephthalites (Alchon Huns) who in turn conquered Bactria and Gandhara and went as far as central India. They were later followed by Turk Shahi and then the Hindu Shahi, until the arrival of Muslims to north-western parts of India.

Religious influences※

Coin of the last Kushano-Sasanian ruler Bahram Kushanshah (circa 350-365 CE) in Kushan style.
*Obv:* Bahram with characteristic headdress.
*Rev:* Shiva with Nandi in Kushan style.

Coins depicting Shiva and Nandi have been discovered, indicating strong influence of Shaivism.

The prophet Mani (210–276), founder of Manichaeism, followed the Sasanian expansion to the east, which exposed him to the thriving Buddhist culture of Gandhara. He is: said to have visited Bamiyan, where several religious paintings are attributed to him, and is believed to have lived and taught for some time. He is also related to have sailed to the Indus Valley area (now in Pakistan) in 240. Or 241 and converted a Buddhist king, the Turan Shah of India.

On that occasion, various Buddhist influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism: "Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the 'elect') and lay follower (the 'hearers') who supported them, appears to be, based on that of the Buddhist sangha".

Coinage※

The Kushano-Sassanids created an extensive coinage with legend in Brahmi, Pahlavi or Bactrian, sometimes inspired from Kushan coinage, and sometimes more clearly Sassanid.

The obverse of the coin usually depicts the ruler with elaborate headdress and on the reverse either a fire temple or Shiva with Nandi.

Kushano-Sasanian ruler Ardashir I Kushanshah, circa 230-250 CE. Merv mint.
Ardashir I Kushanshah in the name of Kushan ruler Vasudeva I, circa 230-245 CE.
Hormizd I Kushanshah with mention of Mazda and Anahita. Merv mint.
Indo-Sassanid coin.
A gold Indo-Sassanid coin.

Kushano-Sasanian art※

The Indo-Sassanids traded goods such as silverware and textiles depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice.

Kushano-Sasanian footed cup with medallion, 3rd-4th century CE, Bactria, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Possible Kushano-Sasanian plate, excavated in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 350-400 CE. British Museum 124093.
Terracotta head of a male figure, Kushano-Sasanian period, Gandhara region, 4th-5th century CE
A probable Kushano-Sasanian plate with hunting scene, found in the 504 CE tomb of Feng Hetu in China. Shanxi Museum. It is dated the 3rd-4th century CE, and was probably manufactured in northern Afghanistan.

Artistic influences※

*Vishnu Nicolo Seal*: Kushano-Sasanian or Kidarite prince worshipping Vishnu or Vāsudeva, with Bactrian inscription. Found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. 4th century CE. British Museum.

The example of Sassanid art was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in the northwest South Asia. Plates seemingly belonging to the art of the Kushano-Sasanians have also been found in Northern Wei tombs in China, such as a plate depicting a boar hunt found in the 504 CE tomb of Feng Hetu.

Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers※

The following Kushanshahs were:

Ardashir I Kushanshah (230–245)
Peroz I Kushanshah (245–275)
Hormizd I Kushanshah (275–300)
Hormizd II Kushanshah (300–303)
Peroz II Kushanshah (303–330)
Varahran Kushanshah (330–365)

See also※

Part of a series on the

History of Afghanistan

Timeline

Ancient

Indus Valley Civilisation	2200–1800 BC
Oxus Civilization	2100–1800 BC
Gandhara Kingdom	1500–535 BC
Median Empire	728–550 BC
Achaemenid Empire	550–330 BC
Macedonian Empire	330–312 BC
Seleucid Empire	312–150 BC
Maurya Empire	305–180 BC
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom	256–125 BC
Parthian Empire	247 BC–224 AD
Indo-Greek Kingdom	180–130 BC
Indo-Scythian Kingdom	155–80? BC
Kushan Empire	135 BC – 248 AD
Indo-Parthian Kingdom	20 BC – 50? AD
Sasanian Empire	230–651
Kidarite Kingdom	320–465
Rob
Alchon Huns	380–560
Hephthalite Empire	410–557
Nezak Huns	484–711

Medieval

Kabul Shahi	565–879
Principality of Chaghaniyan	7th–8th centuries
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Tang China	660–669
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Kartids	1245–1381
Timurids	1370–1507
Arghuns	1520–1591

Modern

Mughals	1501–1738
Safavids	1510–1709
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US invasion	2001
Islamic State (reinstated)	2001
Interim/Transitional Administration	2001–2004
Islamic Republic (politics)	2004–2021
Islamic Emirate (reinstated)	since 2021

Related historical regions

References※

^ The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3, E. Yarshater p.209 ff
^ Rezakhani, Khodadad (2021). "From the Kushans to the Western Turks". King of the Seven Climes: 204.
^ The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila, Michael Maas, Cambridge University Press, 2014 p.284 ff
^ Rezakhani 2017b, p. 83.
^ Sasanian Seals and Sealings, Rika Gyselen, Peeters Publishers, 2007, p.1
^ Encyclopedia Iranica
^ Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). Taxila. CUP Archive. pp. 790–791.
^ CNG Coins
^ Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010
^ CNG Coins
^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
^ For the precise date: Sundermann, Werner; Hintze, Almut; Blois, François de (2009). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 284, note 14. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4.
^ "Plate British Museum". The British Museum.
^ Sims, Vice-President Eleanor G.; Sims, Eleanor; Marshak, Boris Ilʹich; Grube, Ernst J.; I, Boris Marshak (January 2002). Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources. Yale University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.
^ Carter, M.L. "Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. A gilt silver plate depicting a princely boar hunt, excavated from a tomb near Datong dated to 504 CE, is close to early Sasanian royal hunting plates in style and technical aspects, but diverges enough to suggest a Bactrian origin dating from the era of the Kushano-Sasanian rule (ca. 275-350 CE)
^ HARPER, PRUDENCE O. (1990). "An Iranian Silver Vessel from the Tomb of Feng Hetu". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 4: 51–59. ISSN 0890-4464. JSTOR 24048350.
^ Watt, James C. Y. (2004). China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
^ "Seal British Museum". The British Museum.
^ "a Sasanian prince is represented adoring before the Indian god Vishnu" in Herzfeld, Ernst (1930). Kushano-Sasanian Coins. Government of India central publication branch. p. 16.
^ "South Asia Bulletin: Volume 27, Issue 2". South Asia Bulletin. University of California, Los Angeles. 2007. p. 478: A seal inscribed in Bactrian , fourth to fifth century AD , shows a Kushano - Sasanian or Kidarite official worshipping Vishnu : Pierfrancesco Callieri , Seals and Sealings from the North - West of the Indian Subcontinent and Afghanistan.
^ Carter, M.L. "Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. A gilt silver plate depicting a princely boar hunt, excavated from a tomb near Datong dated to 504 CE, is close to early Sasanian royal hunting plates in style and technical aspects, but diverges enough to suggest a Bactrian origin dating from the era of the Kushano-Sasanian rule (ca. 275-350 CE)
^ Rezakhani 2017b, p. 78.

Sources※

Cribb, Joe (2018). Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (eds.). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. University of Oxford The Classical Art Research Centre Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-78491-855-2.
Cribb, Joe (2010). Alram, M. (ed.). "The Kidarites, the numismatic evidence.pdf". Coins, Art and Chronology Ii, Edited by M. Alram et al. Coins, Art and Chronology II: 91–146.
Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017a). "The Sasanian Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 978-0-692-86440-1.
Payne, Richard (2016). "The Making of Turan: The Fall and Transformation of the Iranian East in Late Antiquity". Journal of Late Antiquity. 9. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 4–41. doi:10.1353/jla.2016.0011. S2CID 156673274.
Rapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. London: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4724-2552-2.
Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017b). "East Iran in Late Antiquity". ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–256. ISBN 978-1-4744-0030-5. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8. (registration required)
Rypka, Jan; Jahn, Karl (1968). History of Iranian literature. D. Reidel. ISBN 9789401034791.
Sastri, Nilakanta (1957). A Comprehensive History of India: The Mauryas & Satavahanas. Orient Longmans. p. 246. ISBN 9788170070030.
Vaissière, Étienne de La (2016). "Kushanshahs i. History". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
Wiesehöfer, Joseph (1986). "Ardašīr I i. History". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4. pp. 371–376.

External links※

Coins of the Kushano-Sassanids

History of Central Asia

Polities

Culture

Archaeology

Southern Russia	Sintashta Arzhan kurgan Pazyryk burials Salbyk kurgan Filippovka kurgans
Western China	Bulayïq Kucha Kizil Caves Kizilgaha caves Kumtura Caves Subashi Temple Dunhuang Miran Niya Rawak Mogao Caves Tumshuq Bezeklik Caves Dunhuang Caves Loulan Khotan Kashgar Beshbalik
Mongolia	Noin-Ula burial site
Kazakhstan	Begash Issyk kurgan Jankent Karsakpay inscription Kerderi Krasnyi Yar Merke Turkic Sanctuaries Otrar Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen Petrovka settlement Boralday Sawran Shilikty Steppe Geoglyphs Sumbe Talapty Settlement Turkistan (city) Urpek Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi Araltobe kurgan
Kyrgyzstan	Aigyr-Zhal 2 Balasagun Burana Tower Issyk-Kul Koshoy Korgon Manas Ordo Navekat Özgön Shakh Fazil Suyab Tash Rabat
Uzbekistan	Afrasiyab Akchakhan-Kala Akhsikath Ancient Pap Ayaz-Kala Balalyk Tepe Burchmulla Dalverzin Tepe Desert castles of ancient Khorezm Fayaz Tepe Guldursun-Kala Hazorasp Itchan Kala Kafir-kala Kampir Tepe Kara Tepe Khalchayan Khiva Koi Krylgan Kala Koktepe Kyzyl-Kala Obi-Rakhmat Grotto Poykent Sarmishsay Shahrukhiya Siypantosh Rock Paintings Tavka Kurgan Toprak-Kala Varakhsha Zarautsoy Rock Paintings
Tajikistan	Bunjikat Penjikent Ajina tepe Cyropolis Kafir-kala Sarazm Takht-i Kuwad Takht-i Sangin Kalai Kafirnigan
Turkmenistan	Cave of Dzhebel Abiward Altyndepe Anau culture Anau Dev-Kesken Gonur Depe Jeitun Konye-Urgench Kutlug Timur Minaret Merv Monjukli Depe Namazga-Tepe Nisa Togolok Ulug Depe
Afghanistan	Tepe Fullol Ai-Khanoum Dilberjin Tepe Hadda Tapa Shotor Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Shotorak Paitava Bimaran Tapa-i Kafariha Mes Aynak Fondukistan Khair Khaneh Tapa Sardar Tepe Narenj Takht-e Rostam Tepe Fullol Tillya Tepe Yemshi Tepe Alexandria Prophthasia Aq Kupruk Asqalan Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex Buddhas of Bamiyan Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa Darra-e Kur Dasht-e Nawar Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan Firozkoh Gawhar Shad Mausoleum Haji Piyada Khair Khaneh Mundigak Musalla Complex Nagara Qala-i-Jangi Rag-i-Bibi Surkh Kotal
Iran	Bandian complex Mount Khajeh Shahr-e Sukhteh

Artifacts

Rulers of Ancient Central Asia

Territories/ dates	Khorasan	Margiana	Bactria	Sogdia	Trans-Jaxartes steppes	Altai Mountains
	Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period
3500–2500 BCE	(Eastern migration of the Yamnaya culture from the Pontic steppe through the Eurasian Steppe,as far as the Altai region)
3500–2500 BCE						Afanasievo culture (Proto-Tocharian)
2400–2000 BCE		Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
2000–1900 BCE		Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex		Andronovo Culture
2000–900 BCE				Andronovo Culture
626–539 BCE	Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages			Saka Massagetae Tomyris	Saka Skunkha	Saka (Arzhan culture) (Pazyryk Culture)
539–331 BCE	Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III				Saka Skunkha	Saka (Arzhan culture) (Pazyryk Culture)
331–256 BCE	Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II				Saka	Yuezhi
256–160 BCE	Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I				Yuezhi	Xiongnu Modu Chanyu Laoshang Hunnic tribes
160–141 BCE	Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I Vologases III Parthamaspates Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV		Eucratides
141 BCE–30 CE			Yuezhi Arseiles Sapadbizes Heraios
30 –224 CE			Kushan Empire Kujula Kadphises Vima Takto Vima Kadphises Kanishka I Huvishka Vasudeva I		Saka
224–350 CE	Sasanian Empire Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm Khosrow II Kavad II Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh		Kushano-Sasanians Ardashir I Peroz I Hormizd I Hormizd II Peroz II Varahran	Kangju Wanunkhur	Saka
320 CE–467 CE			Kidarites Yosada Kirada Peroz Kidara Grumbates Kungas Brahmi Buddhatala Varhran (II) Goboziko
370 CE–540 CE			Alchon Huns Khingila Javukha Mehama Lakhana Udayaditya Aduman Toramana Mihirakula
440 CE–560 CE			Hephthalites Akhshunwar Kun-khi Ghadfar
560 CE–651 CE			First Turkic Khaganate (Ashina Tuwu) Bumin Qaghan Issik Qaghan Muqan Qaghan Taspar Qaghan Ashina Anluo Ishbara Qaghan Bagha Qaghan Tulan Qaghan (Istämi) (Empress Ashina) (Apa Qaghan) (Yangsu Tegin) (Tamgan)
560 CE–625 CE			Western Turks (vassal of the Tang dynasty 657–742) Niri Qaghan Heshana Khagan Sheguy Tong Yabghu Qaghan
625 CE–651 CE			Tokhara Yabghus Tardush Shad Ishbara Yabgu Wu-shih-po Pantu Nili	Külüg Sibir Irbis Bolun Cabgu Duolu Qaghan Ishbara Tolis Yukuk Shad Irbis Seguy Ashina Helu
651–673 CE	Muslim conquest of Persia
673–751 CE	Muslim conquest of Persia		Muslim conquest of Transoxiana		Second Turkic Khaganate
Rulers of the Ancient Near-East

Middle kingdoms of India

Timeline and cultural period	Northwestern India (Punjab-Sapta Sindhu)	Indo-Gangetic Plain			Central India	Southern India
Timeline and cultural period	Northwestern India (Punjab-Sapta Sindhu)	Upper Gangetic Plain (Ganga-Yamuna doab)	Middle Gangetic Plain	Lower Gangetic Plain	Central India	Southern India
IRON AGE
Culture	Late Vedic Period	Late Vedic Period (Srauta culture) Painted Grey Ware culture	Late Vedic Period (Shramanic culture) Northern Black Polished Ware		Pre-history
6th century BCE	Gandhara	Kuru-Panchala	Magadha		Adivasi (tribes)	Assaka
Culture	Persian-Greek influences	"Second Urbanisation" Rise of Shramana movements Jainism - Buddhism - Ājīvika - Yoga			Pre-history
5th century BCE	(Persian conquests)		Shaishunaga dynasty		Adivasi (tribes)	Assaka
4th century BCE	(Greek conquests)	Nanda empire			Adivasi (tribes)
HISTORICAL AGE
Culture	Spread of Buddhism				Pre-history
3rd century BCE	Maurya Empire					Satavahana dynasty Sangam period (300 BCE – 200 CE) Early Cholas Early Pandyan Kingdom Cheras
Culture	Preclassical Hinduism - "Hindu Synthesis" (ca. 200 BC - 300 CE) Epics - Puranas - Ramayana - Mahabharata - Bhagavad Gita - Brahma Sutras - Smarta Tradition Mahayana Buddhism
2nd century BCE	Indo-Greek Kingdom		Shunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty			Satavahana dynasty Sangam period (300 BCE – 200 CE) Early Cholas Early Pandyan Kingdom Cheras
1st century BCE	Indo-Greek Kingdom		Shunga Empire Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty
1st century CE	Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians		Kuninda Kingdom
2nd century	Kushan Empire
3rd century	Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom	Kushan Empire	Western Satraps	Kamarupa kingdom	Adivasi (tribes)
Culture	"Golden Age of Hinduism"(ca. CE 320-650) Puranas Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism
4th century	Kidarites	Gupta Empire Varman dynasty				Andhra Ikshvakus Kalabhra dynasty Kadamba Dynasty Western Ganga Dynasty
5th century	Hephthalite Empire	Alchon Huns				Vishnukundina Kalabhra dynasty
6th century	Nezak Huns Kabul Shahi		Maitraka		Adivasi (tribes)	Vishnukundina Badami Chalukyas Kalabhra dynasty
Culture	Late-Classical Hinduism (ca. CE 650-1100) Advaita Vedanta - Tantra Decline of Buddhism in India
7th century	Indo-Sassanids		Vakataka dynasty Empire of Harsha	Mlechchha dynasty	Adivasi (tribes)	Badami Chalukyas Eastern Chalukyas Pandyan Kingdom (Revival) Pallava
8th century	Kabul Shahi		Pala Empire			Eastern Chalukyas Pandyan Kingdom Kalachuri
9th century	Kabul Shahi		Gurjara-Pratihara			Rashtrakuta dynasty Eastern Chalukyas Pandyan Kingdom Medieval Cholas Chera Perumals of Makkotai
10th century	Ghaznavids			Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty		Kalyani Chalukyas Eastern Chalukyas Medieval Cholas Chera Perumals of Makkotai Rashtrakuta
References and sources for table References ^ Samuel ^ Samuel ^ Michaels (2004) p.39 ^ Hiltebeitel (2002) ^ Michaels (2004) p.39 ^ Hiltebeitel (2002) ^ Michaels (2004) p.40 ^ Michaels (2004) p.41 Sources Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press

v t e Provinces of the Sasanian Empire
Abarshahr Adurbadagan Albania Arbayistan Armenia Asoristan Balasagan Dihistan Egypt* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan Garmekan Gurgan Harev Hind Iberia Kadagistan* Khuzistan Kirman Kushanshahr Khwarazm Lazica* Machelonia Makuran Marw Mazun Media Meshan Nodardashiragan Paradan Padishkhwargar Pars Parthia Sakastan Sogdia Spahan Suristan Turan Yemen
* indicates short living provinces

v t e Sasanian Empire
List of monarchs Timeline
Dynasty	House of Sasan Family tree Seven Great Houses Kayus
Culture	Architecture Art Coinage Crowns Dressing Education Glassware Inscriptions Literature Music Punishment Women
Military and wars	Military of the Sasanian Empire Navy Defense lines Roman–Persian Wars Arab tribes Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars Göktürk–Persian wars Aksumite–Persian wars Revolts and civil wars Muslim conquest of Persia
Descendants	Dabuyids Bavands Baduspanids Banu al-Munajjim Mikalids Qarinvand
Related	Roads Economy Roman–Iranian relations Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom ērān and anērān
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